India's space programme, nuclear policy, defence R&D, biotechnology, IT sector and key scientific institutions
ISRO (Indian Space Research Organisation) was established in 1969. India became only the 4th country to place a satellite in orbit around Mars (Mangalyaan, 2014) and the first to land near the lunar south pole (Chandrayaan-3, 2023).
| Mission | Year | Type | Key Achievement |
|---|---|---|---|
| Aryabhata | 1975 | Satellite (Earth observation) | India's first satellite; launched by Soviet Union from Kapustin Yar |
| SLV-3 | 1980 | Launch Vehicle | India's first indigenous satellite launch vehicle; put Rohini satellite into orbit; led by A.P.J. Abdul Kalam |
| INSAT-1B | 1983 | Communication satellite | Launched by US Shuttle Challenger; transformed India's telecom & meteorology |
| IRS-1A | 1988 | Remote sensing | India's first operational remote sensing satellite; launched from Baikonur |
| PSLV (First flight) | 1993 | Launch vehicle | Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle — workhorse of ISRO; 4th launch (1994) was first success |
| Chandrayaan-1 | 2008 | Lunar orbiter | Discovered water molecules on Moon's surface (MIP impacted Moon on Nov 14, 2008) |
| Mangalyaan (MOM) | 2013/2014 | Mars Orbiter Mission | First Asian mission to Mars; first mission to succeed in first attempt; cost ₹450 crore — cheapest Mars mission |
| GSLV Mk-III (LVM3) | 2014+ | Heavy launch vehicle | India's heaviest rocket; can carry 4-tonne satellite to GTO; used for Chandrayaan-2, OneWeb launches |
| Chandrayaan-2 | 2019 | Lunar orbiter + lander | Orbiter still functional (2024+); Vikram lander hard-landed; Pragyan rover did not operate |
| Chandrayaan-3 | 2023 | Lunar lander + rover | Vikram lander soft-landed near lunar south pole (Aug 23, 2023) — FIRST ever; Pragyan rover operated for 14 days; found sulphur, oxygen on Moon surface |
| Aditya-L1 | 2023 | Solar observatory | India's first dedicated solar mission; reached Sun-Earth L1 Lagrange point (Jan 2024); studies solar corona & solar wind |
| PSLV-C37 (Record) | 2017 | Launch vehicle flight | Launched 104 satellites in a single mission — world record at the time |
| NavIC | 2006–2018 | Navigation system | India's indigenous regional navigation system (7 satellites); covers India + 1,500 km radius |
| Gaganyaan | Upcoming | Human spaceflight | India's first crewed mission; TV-D1 abort test conducted Oct 2023; target: 3 astronauts to orbit |
India has a civilian nuclear programme and a nuclear weapons capability (undeclared until 1998). India follows a "No First Use" (NFU) policy and is not a signatory to the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT).
| Event | Year | Details |
|---|---|---|
| Smiling Buddha (Operation) | 1974 | India's first nuclear test at Pokhran, Rajasthan. Codenamed "peaceful nuclear explosion." PM Indira Gandhi. Made India 6th nuclear power. |
| Operation Shakti (Pokhran-II) | 1998 | 5 tests in 2 days (May 11–13) under PM Atal Bihari Vajpayee. India declared nuclear weapons state. Led by Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam. US, EU imposed sanctions. |
| Indo-US Nuclear Deal | 2005–08 | 123 Agreement — India gets civilian nuclear technology & fuel from US; accepts IAEA safeguards on civilian reactors (military programme exempt). India outside NPT but gains nuclear trade rights. |
| NSG Waiver | 2008 | Nuclear Suppliers Group grants India special waiver — can trade nuclear materials without NPT membership. |
DRDO (Defence Research and Development Organisation) was established in 1958. It has 50+ laboratories and over 30,000 scientists working on defence technologies.
| System | Category | Details |
|---|---|---|
| Agni Missiles (I–V) | Ballistic Missiles | Agni-V: ICBM-class, range 5,000–8,000 km; can carry multiple warheads (MIRV); tested in 2012. Agni-Prime: newest, 1,000–2,000 km range. |
| Prithvi Missiles | Short-range ballistic | Range 150–350 km; India's first indigenously developed ballistic missile; inducted into Army & Air Force |
| BrahMos | Cruise Missile | Joint venture with Russia (Brahmaputra + Moskva); world's fastest supersonic cruise missile (Mach 2.8–3.0); range 290–800 km; Army, Navy, Air Force variants; exported to Philippines (2022) |
| Tejas (LCA) | Fighter Aircraft | Light Combat Aircraft; Mk1A inducted into IAF; designed by ADA/HAL; replaces MiG-21; 4th-gen multirole fighter |
| Arjun MBT | Main Battle Tank | India's indigenous tank; 68-tonne; Mk-1A variant improved; competes with Russian T-90 in Indian Army |
| INS Vikrant | Aircraft Carrier | India's first indigenously built aircraft carrier; commissioned Sept 2022; largest warship built in India; displaces 45,000 tonnes |
| Astra Missile | Air-to-Air Missile | Beyond Visual Range (BVR); Mach 4.5+; range 80–110 km; first indigenously developed AAM |
| DRDO-designed PPE | COVID-19 | DRDO developed Diclofenac gel alternative, LCA mask, Bhilwara-type district-level containment — pivoted to pandemic response 2020 |
| QRSAM | Air Defence | Quick Reaction Surface-to-Air Missile; mobile; protects against aircraft, helicopters, UAVs at medium range |
India is the world's largest vaccine manufacturer and a major global generic medicine supplier. The pharmaceutical sector contributes ~1.7% of GDP and employs 2.7 million people.
| Vaccine | Developer | Technology | Significance |
|---|---|---|---|
| Covishield | Oxford-AstraZeneca / Serum Institute of India | Viral vector | Primary vaccine used in India; manufactured at Serum's Pune facility |
| Covaxin (BBV152) | Bharat Biotech + ICMR | Inactivated whole-virion | Fully indigenously developed; first approval (emergency) before Phase 3 data — sparked controversy |
| ZyCoV-D | Zydus Lifesciences | DNA plasmid | World's first DNA vaccine approved for human use |
| CORBEVAX | Biological E | Protein subunit (RBD) | Open-access formulation; developed with Texas Children's Hospital |
India's scientific ecosystem includes premier research institutions, IITs, IISERs, and specialised national laboratories.
| Institution | Location | Established | Focus |
|---|---|---|---|
| BARC (Bhabha Atomic Research Centre) | Trombay, Mumbai | 1954 | Nuclear research; reactors; isotope production; first Indian nuclear reactor Apsara (1956) |
| ISRO (Indian Space Research Organisation) | Bengaluru | 1969 | Space technology; satellites; launch vehicles; planetary missions |
| DRDO | New Delhi (HQ) + 50+ labs | 1958 | Defence technology; missiles; electronics; materials |
| CSIR (Council of Scientific & Industrial Research) | New Delhi | 1942 | 38 national labs; industrial R&D; patents; NCL, CCMB, NIMHANS under its network |
| ICAR (Indian Council of Agricultural Research) | New Delhi | 1929 | Agricultural research; crop development; 100+ research institutes; developed HYV seeds |
| ICMR (Indian Council of Medical Research) | New Delhi | 1911 | Biomedical & health research; top medical research authority; COVID vaccine development support |
| IISc (Indian Institute of Science) | Bengaluru | 1909 | Premier research university; founded by J.N. Tata; top QS-ranked Indian institution |
| IITs (23 institutes) | Pan-India | 1951 (IIT Kharagpur — first) | Engineering, technology, sciences; world-class research & education |
| IISER (7 institutes) | Kolkata, Pune, Mohali, Bhopal, Thiruvananthapuram, Tirupati, Berhampur | 2006 | Basic science research & education; inspired by IIT model |
| TIFR (Tata Institute of Fundamental Research) | Mumbai | 1945 | Mathematics, physics, biology, computer science; founded by Homi Bhabha |
| IUCAA (Inter-University Centre for Astronomy & Astrophysics) | Pune | 1988 | Astronomy; contributed to LIGO gravitational wave detection (2016) |
| IMD (India Meteorological Department) | New Delhi | 1875 | Weather forecasting; cyclone tracking; monsoon prediction |
| GSI (Geological Survey of India) | Kolkata | 1851 | Oldest scientific department; mineral exploration; geological mapping |
Use these short explanations to review your practice answers. For deeper study, consult the official NCERT textbook library.
Cell. Cells perform the basic processes needed for life.
DNA. DNA stores genetic information in its nucleotide sequence.
Training the immune system to recognise a pathogen or its components. Vaccines stimulate immune responses and immune memory.
Bacteria. Antibiotics treat susceptible bacterial infections and do not directly treat viral infections.
Red blood cells. Haemoglobin in red blood cells binds and transports oxygen.
Photosynthesis. Photosynthesis uses light energy to synthesise carbohydrates from carbon dioxide and water.
Controlled electrical conduction. Semiconductor properties allow current to be controlled in devices such as transistors.
Converting light directly into electricity. The photovoltaic effect generates electrical energy from light.
Chemical energy that can be converted to electrical energy. Electrochemical reactions enable charging and discharging.
Remote sensing. Remote sensing collects information about Earth without direct physical contact with the surface.
It appears fixed relative to a point on the equator. Its circular equatorial orbit has the same period and direction as Earth’s rotation.
Transforms readable information into coded form using an algorithm and key. Encryption protects confidentiality; it does not by itself guarantee truth or eliminate all threats.
A second independent type of identity evidence. Two factors combine different categories such as something known and something possessed.
Providing a comparison against the treatment group. A control helps distinguish the effect of the tested variable from other influences.
To scrutinise methods and conclusions before or during publication. Peer review is a quality check, while replication and further scrutiny remain necessary.