Modern History — Complete Reference | UPSC

⛵ European Arrival in India

Trader/Country	Year	Significance
Vasco da Gama (Portugal)	1498	First European to reach India by sea; landed at Calicut (Kozhikode) IMP
Portuguese	1510	Alfonso de Albuquerque captured Goa; first European territorial power in India
British East India Company	1600	Charter by Queen Elizabeth I; first factory at Surat 1608; Fort St. George (Madras) 1639; Bombay 1668; Calcutta 1690
Dutch East India Company (VOC)	1602	Established in Pulicut, Masulipatnam; gradually defeated by British
French East India Company	1664	Established in Pondicherry; great rival to British — Carnatic Wars
Danish East India Company	1616	Minor role; sold settlements to British in 1845

Carnatic Wars — Anglo-French Rivalry PYQ

War	Period	Result
1st Carnatic War	1746–48	Ended with Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle; Madras returned to British; inconclusive
2nd Carnatic War	1749–54	Both sides supported rival claimants; ended with Convention of Pondicherry; British gained influence in Hyderabad
3rd Carnatic War	1756–63	British victory; Treaty of Paris 1763; French confined to Pondicherry (no fortification, no troops); British supremacy in India established IMP

Robert Clive defeated French-backed Siraj-ud-Daula at Battle of Plassey (1757) — marks beginning of British political power in India. Battle of Buxar (1764) — defeat of combined forces of Mir Qasim + Nawab of Awadh + Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II — stronger proof of British military supremacy.

🗺️ British Conquest of India

Important Battles & Conquests

Battle/Event	Year	Significance
Battle of Plassey	1757	Clive defeats Siraj-ud-Daula; British gain Bengal; beginning of British Empire in India IMP
Battle of Buxar	1764	British defeat Mir Qasim + Shuja-ud-Daula + Shah Alam II; Treaty of Allahabad 1765 — Diwani rights of Bengal, Bihar, Orissa to EIC IMP
First Anglo-Mysore War	1767–69	Hyder Ali defeats British; Treaty of Madras — mutual assistance
Second Anglo-Mysore War	1780–84	Hyder Ali died 1782; Tipu Sultan continued; Treaty of Mangalore — status quo
Third Anglo-Mysore War	1790–92	Tipu defeated; Treaty of Seringapatam — Tipu cedes half kingdom, pays indemnity, gives sons as hostages
Fourth Anglo-Mysore War	1799	Tipu Sultan killed; Mysore annexed; restored to old Hindu dynasty (Wodeyar) as subsidiary state
Anglo-Maratha Wars (3)	1775–1818	Three wars; Marathas finally defeated 1818 (Peshwa Baji Rao II surrenders); British supremacy over all India PYQ
Anglo-Sikh Wars	1845–49	Two wars; Punjab annexed 1849; Kohinoor taken to England
Annexation of Awadh	1856	Lord Dalhousie annexes on charge of "misgovernance"; provokes 1857 revolt

Doctrine of Lapse (Dalhousie) PYQ

States without natural heirs could not adopt successors — would lapse to British.
Satara (1848), Jhansi (1853), Nagpur (1854) among states annexed.
Provoked strong resentment; contributed to 1857 uprising (Rani Lakshmibai of Jhansi).
Doctrine abolished after 1857.

Subsidiary Alliance System (Lord Wellesley) PYQ

Indian ruler maintains British troops in their territory; pays for them or cedes territory.
No independent foreign relations; no alliance without British permission.
British Resident stationed at court.
First accepted: Nizam of Hyderabad (1798); then Mysore, Tanjore, Scindia, Holkar, Awadh.
Effect: British empire expanded rapidly; Indian rulers lost sovereignty gradually.

Governor-Generals / Viceroys — Key Names

Name	Period	Key Events/Acts
Robert Clive	1757–67	Battle of Plassey; Diwani rights; Dual Government in Bengal
Warren Hastings	1773–85	Regulating Act 1773; Pitt's India Act 1784; 1st Anglo-Maratha War; 1st Anglo-Mysore War; impeached but acquitted
Lord Cornwallis	1786–93	Permanent Settlement 1793; Cornwallis Code; 3rd Anglo-Mysore War
Lord Wellesley	1798–1805	Subsidiary Alliance; 4th Anglo-Mysore War; defeated Marathas
Lord William Bentinck	1828–35	Abolished Sati (1829); suppressed Thuggee; Macaulay's Minute → English education; Charter Act 1833
Lord Dalhousie	1848–56	Doctrine of Lapse; Railways (1853); Telegraph; Post; Wood's Despatch 1854; Public Works Department; Annexation of Punjab, Nagpur, Awadh
Lord Canning	1856–62	1st Viceroy (after 1857); Government of India Act 1858; Universities established (1857)
Lord Ripon	1880–84	Ilbert Bill controversy; Local Self Government 1882; Factory Act 1881; repeal of Vernacular Press Act
Lord Curzon	1899–1905	Partition of Bengal 1905; Universities Act 1904; Archaeological Survey; Official Secrets Act
Lord Hardinge	1910–16	Annulment of Bengal Partition 1911; Capital moved to Delhi; Delhi Durbar 1911
Lord Chelmsford	1916–21	Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms → GoI Act 1919; Rowlatt Act; Jallianwala Bagh
Lord Reading	1921–26	Non-Cooperation movement; Chauri Chaura; Moplah Rebellion
Lord Irwin	1926–31	Simon Commission; Gandhi-Irwin Pact; Civil Disobedience; Round Table Conferences
Lord Wavell	1943–47	Shimla Conference; Cabinet Mission; interim government; INA trials
Lord Mountbatten	1947	Mountbatten Plan; Partition; Independence August 15, 1947

💰 Revenue/Land Settlement Systems PYQ

System	Introduced by	Area	Features	Effect
Permanent Settlement (Zamindari)	Lord Cornwallis, 1793	Bengal, Bihar, Orissa, parts of Madras	Fixed revenue to be paid by zamindars; zamindars became owners of land; revenue fixed permanently (not revised); any surplus kept by zamindar	Created a loyal class of landlords; peasants became rack-rented; zamindars defaulted → sold to urban moneylenders; no agricultural improvement incentive
Ryotwari Settlement	Thomas Munro and Read, early 19th c.	Madras, Bombay, Assam, Coorg	Direct settlement with cultivators (ryots); revenue paid directly to government; assessed per field; revised periodically (30 years)	No intermediary class; peasant had occupancy rights; high assessments often led to defaults and land alienation; revenue revised upward frequently
Mahalwari Settlement	Holt Mackenzie, 1822; modified by R. Martin Bird 1833	NW Provinces (UP), Central India, Punjab	Settlement with village community (mahal); entire village jointly responsible; revenue from whole village assessed	Village headman (lambardar) collected revenue; some tenant security; revenue frequently enhanced; caused peasant distress

⚔️ The Revolt of 1857 PYQ

Called variously: "Sepoy Mutiny" (British), "First War of Independence" (V.D. Savarkar), "Revolt" (most historians). Immediate cause: Greased cartridges (Enfield rifle — beef/pork fat rumour). Began: Meerut, May 10, 1857 → Delhi proclaimed capital; Bahadur Shah Zafar declared leader.

Causes of 1857 Revolt

🔴 Political Causes

Doctrine of Lapse — Jhansi, Nagpur, Satara, Awadh annexed
Pensioner status of Mughal emperor; abolition of Peshwaship
Removal of Nana Sahib's pension
Disrespect to Indian rulers and nobility

🔵 Economic Causes

Destruction of Indian handicrafts through machine goods
Heavy land revenue; peasant indebtedness
Ruin of old zamindars and talukdars
Drain of wealth to Britain

🟤 Social/Religious Causes

Abolition of Sati, widow remarriage act — seen as interference in religion
Missionary activities; fear of conversion
Legislation allowing Hindu widows to remarry
Western education undermining Indian traditions (perception)

🟠 Military Causes

General Service Enlistment Act (1856) — sepoys required to serve overseas (loss of caste fear)
Greased cartridges (beef + pork tallow) — Enfield rifle
Racial discrimination; lower pay for Indian soldiers
Mangal Pandey incident — Barrackpore, March 1857

Key Leaders and Centers

Region	Leader(s)	Fate
Delhi	Bahadur Shah Zafar (nominal); Bakht Khan (military)	Delhi recaptured Sep 1857; Zafar exiled to Rangoon; died 1862
Kanpur (Cawnpore)	Nana Sahib, Tantia Tope	Kanpur recaptured; Nana Sahib disappeared; Tantia Tope captured and hanged 1859
Jhansi	Rani Lakshmibai	Died fighting at Gwalior, June 1858 IMP
Lucknow	Begum Hazrat Mahal	Fled to Nepal; Lucknow recaptured March 1858
Bihar (Arrah)	Kunwar Singh	Died April 1858 after successful guerrilla campaign; 80-year-old zamindar
Bareilly	Khan Bahadur Khan	Hanged 1860
Faizabad	Maulvi Ahmadullah Shah	Killed 1858

Areas NOT Affected / Supporting British

Bengal: Zamindars loyal; Nawab of Bhopal, Sindhia, Holkar supported British.
South India, Punjab, Rajputana: No major revolt.
Bombay and Madras presidencies: Mostly calm.

Consequences of 1857 Revolt PYQ

Government of India Act 1858 — EIC rule ended; Crown Rule began; Secretary of State for India + Council of India in London; Viceroy replaces Governor-General.
Queen's Proclamation 1858 — equal opportunity for Indians; no more annexation; respect for Indian customs/religion; Doctrine of Lapse abandoned.
Army reorganised — more British troops; no Indian in artillery; divide-and-rule in recruitment (martial races theory).
Indian princes protected; loyal rulers rewarded.
India Council Act 1858 — 15-member India Council advises Secretary of State in London.

Character of 1857: R.C. Majumdar — "neither first, nor national, nor war of independence." T.R. Holmes — "sepoy mutiny." S.B. Chaudhuri — "people's revolt." V.D. Savarkar — "first war of independence." Most balanced view: a major uprising combining sepoy mutiny + peasant revolt + feudal reaction, but WITHOUT pan-Indian consciousness.

📉 Economic Impact of British Rule

Drain of Wealth Theory PYQ

Dadabhai Naoroji first articulated "Drain Theory" in "Poverty and Un-British Rule in India" (1901).
Drain = export surplus NOT matched by import of goods/bullion — remittances to UK for salaries, pensions, home charges.
Romesh Chandra Dutt estimated drain; G.V. Joshi quantified it.
Annual drain estimated at £30–40 million in late 19th century.

De-Industrialisation

Cheap machine-made textiles from Britain flooded India → Indian cotton weavers ruined.
Reverse flow: raw cotton exported cheap from India; finished cloth imported expensive.
Dacca muslin (once world-famous) virtually disappeared.
Indian iron and steel industry collapsed under competition.

Railways — Double-edged Impact PYQ

1853 — First railway: Bombay to Thane (Lord Dalhousie).
Positive: integrated national market; nationalism facilitated; faster movement of troops.
Negative: profits went to British investors; guaranteed 5% return to companies paid from Indian revenues; connected ports (not producing areas) — facilitated drain.

Indian Famines under British Rule

Famine	Year	Deaths (estimate)
Bengal Famine	1770	1/3rd of Bengal population (~10 million)
Great Famine	1876–78	6–10 million; Deccan, Madras, Bombay
Bihar-Bengal Famine	1873–74	Sir Richard Temple's relief work — later criticised as too expensive
Indian Famine	1896–1902	6 million+; Lyall Commission report
Bengal Famine	1943	2–3 million; man-made (Churchill's war policy)

🌟 Social & Religious Reform Movements PYQ

Reform Movements in Bengal

Movement/Person	Founded	Key Reforms
Raja Ram Mohan Roy — Brahmo Samaj	1828	Opposed sati, child marriage, caste; promoted widow remarriage, women's education; English education; monotheism; "Father of Indian Renaissance" IMP
Derozio — Young Bengal Movement	1820s	Rationalism, free thinking; radical questioning of tradition; Hindu College, Calcutta
Keshab Chandra Sen	1860s	Led Brahmo Samaj after Roy; Civil Marriage Act 1872; inter-caste marriages; later controversially married daughter to minor
Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar	1850s	Widow Remarriage Act 1856; opposed child marriage; promoted women's education; Sanskrit scholar
Ramakrishna Paramahamsa	19th c.	Mysticism, universalism; "all religions are true"; teacher of Swami Vivekananda
Swami Vivekananda — Ramakrishna Mission	1897	Neo-Vedanta; represented India at Parliament of Religions, Chicago 1893; practical Vedanta; service to poor as service to God PYQ

Reform Movements in North India

Movement/Person	Founded	Key Reforms
Swami Dayanand Saraswati — Arya Samaj	1875	"Back to Vedas"; opposed idol worship, caste, child marriage; promoted Hindi; shuddhi (reconversion); Dayanand Anglo-Vedic schools IMP
Swami Vivekananda	1893+	Pan-India influence; "practical Vedanta"; uplift of masses
Aligarh Movement — Sir Syed Ahmad Khan	1875	Modernised Muslim education; MAO College, Aligarh (1875 → AMU 1920); urged Muslims not to join INC; separate Muslim identity
Deoband Movement	1867	Darul Uloom Deoband; Islamic education; anti-British but conservative; opposed Aligarh's westernism
Ahmadiyya Movement	1889	Mirza Ghulam Ahmad; Islamic revivalism; missionary activity

Reform Movements in South & West India

Movement/Person	Region	Key Reforms
Jyotirao Phule — Satyashodhak Samaj	Maharashtra (1873)	Caste abolition; education for women and lower castes; challenged Brahmin supremacy; "Gulamgiri" (Slavery) IMP
Gopal Ganesh Agarkar	Maharashtra	Rationalism; social reform before political reform; opposed Tilak's priority of Swaraj
Deccan Education Society	Maharashtra (1884)	Founded by Tilak, Agarkar; New English School, Fergusson College
Narayan Guru — SNDP Yogam	Kerala (1903)	"One caste, one religion, one God for humanity"; temples open to all; opposed untouchability; Ezhava community PYQ
E.V. Ramasamy Periyar — Self-Respect Movement	Tamil Nadu (1925)	Anti-Brahmin; rationalist; women's rights; Tamil pride; "Father of Social Justice" in Tamil Nadu
B.R. Ambedkar	All India	Dalit rights; converted to Buddhism 1956; "Annihilation of Caste"; authored Constitution; Mahad Satyagraha 1927 (right to use tank water)

Women-Related Social Legislations

Act	Year	Provision
Sati Regulation Act	1829	William Bentinck; banned sati in Bengal Presidency; extended to other presidencies 1830
Hindu Widows' Remarriage Act	1856	Lord Dalhousie; Vidyasagar's efforts; allowed remarriage of Hindu widows
Civil Marriage Act	1872	Inter-caste, inter-religious marriages; minimum age 14 (girls), 18 (boys)
Age of Consent Act	1891	Raised age of consent for girls from 10 to 12; Tilak opposed as interference
Sharda Act (Child Marriage Restraint)	1929	Min age 14 for girls, 18 for boys (later raised)

🏛️ Formation of Indian National Congress (1885)

Founded: December 28, 1885, Bombay. First President: Womesh Chandra Bonnerjee. A.O. Hume (retired British ICS officer) is credited with organizing the founding session. First session had 72 delegates.

Theories about INC's Formation

Safety Valve Theory (Lala Lajpat Rai, B.G. Tilak): Hume founded INC as a "safety valve" to channel Indian discontent peacefully and prevent another 1857. Hume himself hinted at this in his 1913 memoir.
Nationalist Theory: INC was genuine expression of growing national consciousness; Hume's role was organizational facilitation, not manipulation.
Drain theory proponents (Bipin Chandra): British supported INC initially as it was moderate and posed no real threat.

INC — Early Aims

Promote friendly relations among national workers from different parts of India.
Develop and consolidate sentiments of national unity irrespective of caste, religion, or province.
Formulate popular demands and present them to the government.
Train public opinion.

🕊️ Moderates Phase (1885–1905)

Leaders: Dadabhai Naoroji, Gopal Krishna Gokhale, Pherozeshah Mehta, Surendranath Banerjee, M.G. Ranade. Method: "3 Ps" — Prayer, Petition, Protest. Believed in working within British constitutional framework.

Moderate Demands & Achievements

Greater share of Indians in civil services and legislative councils.
Reduction of military expenditure and home charges.
Separation of judicial from executive functions.
Freedom of the press and speech.
Publication of Drain of Wealth theory; Dadabhai Naoroji elected to British Parliament (1892).
Indian Councils Act 1892 (minor concession — expanded councils, nominated Indians).

Criticism of Moderates (by Extremists): Believed loyally in British justice; narrow social base; petitioning without mass mobilisation; concessions were negligible. Tilak: "Political freedom is the breath of our political life."

Gopal Krishna Gokhale

Founded Servants of India Society (1905).
Gandhi's political guru — called "Gandhi's guru" by Gandhi himself.
Member of Viceroy's Legislative Council; pressed for Indian reforms.
Advocated constitutional methods; elementary education bill.

🔥 Extremists Phase & Partition of Bengal (1905–1919)

Partition of Bengal (1905)

Lord Curzon partitioned Bengal on October 16, 1905 — ostensibly for administrative convenience but widely seen as divide-and-rule (Hindu West Bengal + Muslim East Bengal with Assam). Provoked massive Swadeshi and Boycott movement — considered the beginning of mass nationalism.

Swadeshi Movement: Use of Indian-made goods; boycott British goods; lit Bengal in patriotism.
Boycott of British goods — especially Manchester cloth and Liverpool salt.
National Education: Bengal National College; Aurobindo Ghosh as principal.
Vandemataram by Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay became national song.
Annulment: Bengal Partition reversed in 1911 (Delhi Durbar) — seen as victory; capital moved to Delhi.

Bal Gangadhar Tilak — "Father of Indian Unrest" IMP

Started Ganesh Chaturthi (1893) and Shivaji Jayanti as mass political festivals in Maharashtra.
Newspapers: Kesari (Marathi), Mahratta (English).
Opposed Age of Consent Act; supported Swadeshi.
Mantra: "Swaraj is my birthright and I shall have it."
Imprisoned 1897 (18 months) and 1908 (6 years in Mandalay) for seditious writing.
Founded Home Rule League in 1916.

Surat Split (1907) PYQ

INC split at Surat session between Moderates (Gokhale/Mehta) and Extremists (Tilak/Pal/Lajpat Rai — Lal-Bal-Pal).
Issue: Presidency of INC session; support for Swadeshi/Boycott methods.
Moderates controlled INC; Extremists out; reunited only at Lucknow 1916.

Revolutionary Nationalism PYQ

Organisation	Region	Key Figures
Anushilan Samiti	Bengal	P. Mitra; Aurobindo, Barindra Ghosh; Alipore Bomb Case 1908
Abhinav Bharat	Maharashtra	V.D. Savarkar; Nashik Conspiracy; Madan Lal Dhingra
India House, London	London	Shyamji Krishna Varma; Savarkar; base for revolutionary activity abroad
Ghadar Party	USA/Canada (1913)	Lala Hardayal; Sohan Singh Bhakna; largely Punjabi immigrants; armed uprising attempt 1915 — failed
HSRA	Punjab/UP	Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev, Rajguru, Chandrashekhar Azad; Saunders murder 1928; Assembly bomb 1929; Lahore Conspiracy Case 1929

Morley-Minto Reforms — Indian Councils Act 1909 PYQ

Expanded legislative councils; introduced direct elections to provincial councils.
Separate electorate for Muslims — most controversial provision; seeds of communalism.
Morley: Secretary of State; Minto: Viceroy.
No responsible government; executive not accountable to legislature.
Moderate demand partly met; Muslims appeased through separate representation.

🕊️ Gandhian Era (1915–1947)

Gandhi returned to India in January 1915 from South Africa where he had developed Satyagraha. He spent 1915–17 observing India ("listening to India") on Gokhale's advice. First Indian Satyagraha: Champaran (1917).

Gandhi's Early Satyagrahas in India

Satyagraha	Year	Issue	Outcome
Champaran IMP	1917	Indigo farmers forced into tinkathia system by European planters	Champaran Agrarian Act 1918; Gandhi's first victory in India; system abolished
Kheda	1918	Crop failure; peasants demanded revenue remission	Partial success; revenue collection suspended for those who couldn't pay
Ahmedabad Mill Strike	1918	Mill workers' wages; Gandhi's first hunger strike in India	35% wage increase granted
Rowlatt Satyagraha	1919	Rowlatt Act (allowed detention without trial) — "Black Act"	Hartals across India; Jallianwala Bagh massacre followed

Jallianwala Bagh Massacre — April 13, 1919 IMP

General Reginald Dyer ordered firing on peaceful gathering at Jallianwala Bagh, Amritsar on Baisakhi day.
Official casualties: 379 dead, 1200 wounded; actual figure much higher.
Hunter Commission (1919–20) — enquired; censured Dyer but did not prosecute.
Rabindranath Tagore renounced knighthood in protest.
Udham Singh assassinated Dyer's superior, O'Dwyer (Punjab Lt. Governor), in London in 1940 — hanged.

Khilafat and Non-Cooperation Movement (1919–22) PYQ

Khilafat issue: Muslims upset at harsh treatment of Ottoman Caliph (Khalifa) after WWI; Ali Brothers (Shaukat Ali, Mohammad Ali) led movement.
Gandhi saw opportunity for Hindu-Muslim unity; embraced Khilafat.
Non-Cooperation Movement (1920–22): Surrender of titles, boycott of government schools/courts/elections, Swadeshi, boycott of foreign cloth.
First mass movement — lakhs participated including peasants and workers.
Chauri Chaura (February 1922): Mob burnt police station; 22 policemen killed; Gandhi suspended the movement. Criticised by many (Jawaharlal Nehru, Subhas Bose).
Khilafat died 1924 when Turkey abolished caliphate under Ataturk.

Civil Disobedience Movement — Dandi March (1930) PYQ

Background: Lahore Session 1929 — "Purna Swaraj" (Complete Independence) declared; January 26 as Independence Day.
Gandhi's 11 demands to Viceroy Irwin; salt as symbol.
Dandi March: March 12 – April 6, 1930; 241 miles from Sabarmati Ashram to Dandi; broke salt law April 6.
Mass civil disobedience across India; Gandhi arrested; Dharasana Salt Works raid (Sarojini Naidu leading; police brutality widely reported).
Gandhi-Irwin Pact (March 1931): Civil disobedience suspended; political prisoners released; salt manufacture permitted on seacoast; India attends Round Table Conference.
2nd RTC — Gandhi attended but no agreement; CDM resumed 1932; Gandhi arrested.
Poona Pact (1932) — Gandhi's fast against Communal Award (MacDonald Award gave separate electorate to depressed classes); Ambedkar agreed to joint electorate with reserved seats.

Quit India Movement (1942) IMP

Background: WWII; Cripps Mission failed (March 1942 — "post-dated cheque on a crashing bank" — Gandhi); Japanese advancing.
August 8, 1942 — Bombay session of AICC; Gandhi's "Do or Die" speech.
August 9 — All Congress leaders arrested before movement could be launched (Operation Zero Hour).
Spontaneous uprising across India; workers, students, peasants; underground parallel governments in Ballia (UP), Tamluk (Bengal), Satara (Maharashtra).
Most violent mass movement; over 60,000 arrested; hundreds killed in police firing.
Usha Mehta ran Congress Radio secretly.
Movement suppressed by 1943; marked end of British will to stay.

Indian National Army (INA) — Subhas Chandra Bose PYQ

Subhas Chandra Bose (Netaji) — twice elected INC president (1938, 1939); resigned 1939 after Tripuri controversy with Gandhi.
Founded Forward Bloc (1939).
Escaped house arrest (1941); Germany → Japan → Singapore.
Reorganised INA (first formed by Mohan Singh 1942 with POWs from Singapore) → "Azad Hind Fauj."
Provisional Government of Free India declared in Singapore (1943).
INA advanced into Northeast India with Japanese; captured Kohima and Imphal — reversed.
Bose died in plane crash (disputed) — Taihoku (Taiwan), August 1945.
INA trials (Red Fort, 1945) — huge public outrage; British decision to try them backfired; strengthened independence movement.

📜 Constitutional Acts & Reforms PYQ

Act	Year	Key Provisions
Regulating Act	1773	First attempt to regulate EIC; Supreme Court in Calcutta; Governor-General of Bengal; GoC of Bombay/Madras subordinate to GoC Bengal
Pitt's India Act	1784	Board of Control in London + Court of Directors; distinguished political and commercial functions; India became part of British state's responsibility
Charter Act 1813	1813	EIC's monopoly on trade ended (except tea + China trade); Christian missionaries allowed; ₹1 lakh annually for Indian education
Charter Act 1833	1833	EIC no longer trading body; Governor-General of India (not just Bengal); Law Commission (Macaulay); centralization; theoretical equality for Indians in civil services
Charter Act 1853	1853	Civil services opened to competitive exams; Legislative Council expanded — separate from executive; last charter act
Government of India Act 1858	1858	Crown Rule; Secretary of State + India Council; Queen's Proclamation; Viceroy; EIC abolished IMP
Indian Councils Act 1861	1861	Indians nominated to Viceroy's Executive Council (first: Scindia, Patiala); legislative councils expanded; portfolio system; Viceroy's ordinance power
Indian Councils Act 1892	1892	Expanded councils; some election-like nomination; question-asking (not supplementary) in councils; modest concession
Morley-Minto Reforms (ICA 1909)	1909	Expanded legislative councils; direct elections; separate Muslim electorate; first Indian to Viceroy's Executive Council (Sinha) IMP
Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms (GoI Act 1919)	1919	Dyarchy in provinces (transferred/reserved subjects); bicameral Central Legislature; Indian Statutory Commission (Simon Commission to review in 10 years); communal electorate extended PYQ
Government of India Act 1935	1935	Dyarchy at Centre (never implemented); provincial autonomy; Federation (never formed); RBI; Federal Court; Burma separated; longest act before 1947 IMP
Indian Independence Act 1947	1947	Two dominions — India and Pakistan; Partition of Bengal and Punjab; end of British paramountcy over princely states; Governor-General for each dominion; Constituent Assembly to frame constitution

Dyarchy (1919–37)

Provincial subjects split into "transferred" (education, health, local self-government — Indian ministers) and "reserved" (law and order, finance — British governors/officials).
Working: Indian ministers responsible to legislature; reserved subjects controlled by Governor.
Criticism: Dyarchy unworkable; Indian ministers had no real power; finances controlled by reserved side.
Provincial Autonomy 1935: Dyarchy abolished; full provincial autonomy; Congress won elections in 7 of 11 provinces in 1937.

Simon Commission (1927) PYQ

Appointed to review Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms; all-British (no Indian member).
Boycotted across India — "Simon Go Back" — Lala Lajpat Rai led protest in Lahore; lathicharge; he died later (dubbed "martyr").
Report formed basis for GoI Act 1935.
Nehru Report (1928) — Indian response; drafted by Motilal Nehru; first Indian constitutional blueprint; Dominion Status not complete independence (Jinnah accepted, Subhas/younger INC wanted full independence).

Round Table Conferences

RTC	Year	INC Participation	Outcome
1st RTC	1930–31	No (Congress on CDM)	Minority representation discussed; Communal Award discussed
2nd RTC	1931	Yes — Gandhi (sole representative)	No agreement on minorities/communal issue; failed; CDM resumed
3rd RTC	1932	No (Congress banned)	GoI Act 1935 based on Simon Commission + RTC recommendations

🚩 Other Key Events & Movements

Lucknow Pact (1916) PYQ

INC and Muslim League agreed on a joint constitutional scheme.
Tilak represented INC (reunited with Extremists); Jinnah represented League.
Agreed: separate Muslim electorate (INC accepted for first time); joint demand for responsible government; power sharing formula for provinces.
Marked Congress-League cooperation (short-lived).

Home Rule Movement (1916)

Tilak's Home Rule League (April 1916) — Maharashtra, Karnataka, Berar, Central Provinces.
Annie Besant's Home Rule League (September 1916) — rest of India.
Demand: Self-government within British Empire (Home Rule, not independence).
Mass membership; politicised new social groups.
Annie Besant interned by Madras government 1917 — caused widespread protest; elected INC president 1917 (first woman president).

Rowlatt Act (1919) & Its Impact IMP

Anarchical and Revolutionary Crimes Act 1919 — allowed detention without trial for 2 years.
"No Vakil, No Dalil, No Appeal" — Gandhi.
Hartal called March 30 / April 6, 1919 — mass protests.
Led directly to Jallianwala Bagh and Gandhi's Non-Cooperation Movement.

Communal Award (1932) & Poona Pact

Ramsay MacDonald's Communal Award — separate electorate for depressed classes (untouchables) in addition to Hindus.
Gandhi opposed — feared Hindu society division; undertook fast unto death in Yerawada Jail.
Poona Pact (September 24, 1932) — Ambedkar and Gandhi; depressed classes to remain within Hindu electorate BUT reserved seats increased (from 71 to 148 in provincial legislatures); separate electorate idea dropped.
Ambedkar always said he was forced by Gandhi's fast — not a genuine agreement.

Cripps Mission (1942)

Stafford Cripps sent to India with proposals: Dominion status after WWII; right to secede from Commonwealth; provinces could opt out (provincial autonomy guaranteed); interim government.
Congress rejected — no immediate independence; governor retained power; provinces could opt out (partition feared).
Gandhi: "A post-dated cheque on a crashing bank."
Rejection led to Quit India Movement August 1942.

Wavell Plan & Shimla Conference (1945)

Viceroy Wavell proposed new Executive Council — all Indians except Commander-in-Chief; equal Hindu-Muslim representation.
Shimla Conference (June-July 1945) — failed because Jinnah insisted League must nominate ALL Muslim members (INC also represented Muslims).

Cabinet Mission (1946) IMP

Pethick-Lawrence + Stafford Cripps + A.V. Alexander — three-member British Cabinet Mission.
Rejected Jinnah's Pakistan demand; proposed Three-Tier Federal Structure: Union (defence, foreign affairs, communications) + Groups (provinces can form groups) + Provinces.
Congress accepted provisionally but rejected grouping scheme; League accepted but later withdrew.
Constituent Assembly formed (December 1946); INC formed Interim Government (Nehru PM).
League joined interim government but stayed non-cooperative.
Direct Action Day — August 16, 1946 (Jinnah) — Great Calcutta Killings; communal riots spread.

🇮🇳 Partition & Independence (1947)

Mountbatten Plan — June 3, 1947 IMP

Lord Mountbatten (last Viceroy) announced plan: Partition of India into two dominions — India and Pakistan.
Punjab and Bengal to be partitioned; Boundary Commission (Radcliffe Line) to draw borders.
Referendum in Sylhet (joined Pakistan), NWFP, Baluchistan.
Princely states free to join either dominion or remain independent (but paramountcy lapsed).
Indian Independence Act passed in UK; August 15, 1947 set as date (brought forward from June 1948).

Radcliffe Line

Sir Cyril Radcliffe — never been to India; drew boundary in 5 weeks.
Punjab divided: India got Gurdaspur, Ferozepore; Pakistan got west Punjab.
Bengal divided: India got West Bengal; Pakistan got East Bengal (later Bangladesh 1971).
Awarded August 17 — two days AFTER independence to prevent violence before the date.

Partition — Human Cost

Largest mass migration in human history: 14–17 million people displaced.
500,000–2 million killed in communal violence (estimates vary widely).
Trains carrying refugees ambushed; cities burnt; unprecedented communal carnage.
Gandhi undertook fast in Calcutta and Delhi to stop violence; assassinated January 30, 1948 by Nathuram Godse.

Integration of Princely States PYQ

565 princely states — Sardar Patel (Iron Man of India) and V.P. Menon negotiated integration.
Instrument of Accession: states acceded on three subjects (defence, external affairs, communications).
Most states signed by August 15; Hyderabad (Police Action — Operation Polo, September 1948), Junagarh (referendum), Kashmir (disputed accession — October 1947, Pakistani raiders, Hari Singh signed accession).
Patel described as "Bismarck of India" for unifying the country.

Key Dates — Freedom Movement Timeline

1885 — INC founded, Bombay (Hume; Bonnerjee president)

1905 — Partition of Bengal; Swadeshi Movement

1906 — Muslim League founded, Dacca

1907 — Surat Split (Moderates vs Extremists)

1909 — Morley-Minto Reforms; separate Muslim electorate

1911 — Bengal Partition annulled; capital to Delhi; Delhi Durbar

1915 — Gandhi returns to India; Gokhale dies

1916 — Lucknow Pact; Home Rule Leagues; Tilak-Besant

1917 — Champaran Satyagraha; Montagu Declaration

1919 — Rowlatt Act; Jallianwala Bagh; Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms

1920–22 — Non-Cooperation Movement; Khilafat; Chauri Chaura

1927 — Simon Commission; boycott; Lajpat Rai lathicharge

1928 — Nehru Report; Saunders murder (Bhagat Singh)

1929 — Lahore session — Purna Swaraj declared; January 26 as Independence Day

1930 — Dandi March (March 12 – April 6); Civil Disobedience

1931 — Gandhi-Irwin Pact; Bhagat Singh hanged (March 23)

1932 — Communal Award; Poona Pact; CDM resumed

1935 — Government of India Act 1935

1937 — Provincial elections; Congress forms governments in 7 provinces

1939 — WWII; Congress ministries resign; Jinnah's "Deliverance Day"

1940 — Lahore Resolution (Pakistan demand); Gandhi's Individual Satyagraha

1942 — Cripps Mission fails; Quit India Movement (August 9)

1943 — Bengal Famine; Bose forms Azad Hind Fauj

1945 — WWII ends; INA trials; Shimla Conference; elections

1946 — Cabinet Mission; Interim Government; Direct Action Day; Constituent Assembly begins

1947 — Mountbatten Plan (June 3); Independence (August 15); Partition

Content compiled from Bipin Chandra's "India's Struggle for Independence," Spectrum's "A Brief History of Modern India," NCERT Class 8–12 History textbooks, and UPSC previous year questions. For UPSC preparation only — cross-verify with official syllabus at upsc.gov.in.

🏴 Modern Indian History — Complete Reference