GS Paper 2 · Foreign Policy · UPSC Civil Services
International Relations
India's foreign policy doctrines, its neighbourhood, the great-power relationships and the multilateral groupings that shape where India stands in the world — and why.
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GS Paper 2 (Mains)
Foreign Policy
Bilateral Relations
International Orgs
UPSC pattern: International Relations is central to GS-2 Mains — India and its neighbourhood, bilateral/regional/global groupings, India's interests, the diaspora, and important international institutions. Prelims tests factual knowledge of summits, headquarters and members; Mains requires analytical depth on India's interests, challenges and opportunities.
1. India's Foreign Policy — Foundations and Doctrines
| Doctrine / era | Period | Key features |
|---|---|---|
| Nehruvian Foreign Policy | 1947–1964 | Non-Alignment (NAM — 1961 Belgrade); Panchsheel (1954 with China); anti-colonialism; world peace; Hindi-Chini bhai-bhai (before 1962) |
| Panchsheel Principles (1954) | Nehru–Zhou Enlai | Mutual respect for sovereignty; non-aggression; non-interference; equality & mutual benefit; peaceful coexistence IMP |
| Indira Doctrine | 1971–1984 | India as South Asian hegemon; no external power interference in South Asia; Bangladesh liberation (1971); Simla Agreement (1972) |
| Rajiv Gandhi Era | 1984–1989 | IPKF in Sri Lanka (1987); SAARC formation (1985); tech modernisation diplomacy |
| Gujral Doctrine | 1996–1998 | PM I.K. Gujral: unilateral concessions to neighbours; non-reciprocity with smaller SAARC states; goodwill building |
| Post-1991 Economic Reforms Era | 1991–2004 | Look East Policy; WTO engagement; nuclear tests (Pokhran II, 1998); Vajpayee's Lahore Bus Diplomacy (1999) |
| UPA Era (Manmohan Singh) | 2004–2014 | India-US Civil Nuclear Deal (123 Agreement, 2008); ASEAN FTA; BRICS founding; SAARC revitalisation attempts |
| Modi's Foreign Policy | 2014–present | Neighbourhood First; Act East (upgraded Look East); Link West; SAGAR doctrine; multilateral leadership (G20 presidency 2023); QUAD revival IMP |
Key foreign policy concepts
| Concept | Meaning |
|---|---|
| Non-Alignment | Not joining Cold War power blocs; 120 member states; 1961 Belgrade Summit (first NAM); India a founding member |
| Strategic Autonomy | Independent decision-making free from external pressure; India's consistent stance in the Russia-Ukraine conflict, etc. |
| Multi-alignment | Modern evolution of non-alignment; engage all major powers simultaneously — US, Russia, China, EU, Gulf |
| SAGAR | Security and Growth for All in the Region; India's vision for the Indian Ocean; blue economy, maritime security |
| Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam | "The World is One Family" — theme of India's G20 Presidency 2023 |
| Diaspora Diplomacy | 3.2 crore Indian diaspora worldwide; PIO/OCI cards; Pravasi Bharatiya Divas (9 January); remittances $111 billion (2022, highest globally) |
2. India's Neighbourhood Relations
Pakistan
| Aspect | Details |
|---|---|
| Key Issues | Kashmir (LoC), cross-border terrorism, Indus Waters Treaty (1960), trade suspension, nuclear standoff |
| Indus Waters Treaty | World Bank-brokered (1960); India gets Ravi, Beas, Sutlej (eastern rivers); Pakistan gets Indus, Jhelum, Chenab (western rivers); remained intact through wars; under strain (2023) IMP |
| Simla Agreement, 1972 | Bilateral resolution of disputes; Kashmir is a bilateral issue (India's position vs. Pakistan's multilateral position) |
| LoC Ceasefire | 2021 — India-Pakistan DGMOs agreed to observe the 2003 ceasefire strictly; cautious improvement |
| Current Status | No formal bilateral talks since Pathankot (2016), Uri (2016), Pulwama (2019) attacks; India suspended trade after Art. 370 abrogation (2019) |
China
| Aspect | Details |
|---|---|
| Key Issues | Border dispute (LAC — 3,488 km); Arunachal Pradesh claim; Aksai Chin; string of pearls; BRI; trade deficit |
| 1962 War | China captured Aksai Chin; India's defeat shaped defence policy; "Hindi-Chini bhai-bhai" ended |
| LAC Dispute | No mutually agreed LAC; three sectors — Western (Ladakh-Aksai Chin), Middle (HP-Uttarakhand), Eastern (Arunachal) |
| Galwan Clash 2020 | Bloodiest clash since 1967; 20 Indian soldiers killed; India-China disengagement process (14 rounds+) IMP |
| Trade | China India's largest trading partner (imports $117bn, exports $15bn — 2022–23); trade deficit ~$83 billion |
| BRICS | Both founding members; cooperation continues despite border tensions |
| BRI / CPEC | India opposes BRI as CPEC passes through Pakistan-occupied Kashmir; sovereignty concern |
Bangladesh
| Aspect | Details |
|---|---|
| Relationship | India helped liberate Bangladesh (1971); strong historical-cultural ties; Hasina government (until 2024) was India-friendly |
| Key Agreements | Land Boundary Agreement 2015 (exchange of 162 enclaves); Ganga Water Treaty 1996 (Farakka Barrage); Teesta water-sharing pending |
| Connectivity | Rail, road, inland waterways restored; Akhaura-Agartala rail link (2023); Bhairab-Bijoy rail |
| Trade | Bangladesh India's largest trade partner in South Asia; RMG sector; transit for NE India via Bangladesh |
| 2024 Political Change | Sheikh Hasina resigned (Aug 2024); interim government under Yunus; India-Bangladesh relations under recalibration |
Nepal, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Bhutan, Maldives, Afghanistan
| Country | Key issues | Agreements / developments |
|---|---|---|
| Nepal | Open border (Treaty of Peace and Friendship 1950); Kalapani-Limpiadhura-Lipulekh territorial dispute; China influence growing; hydropower cooperation | |
| Sri Lanka | Fishing rights in Palk Strait; Tamil minority issue; IPKF failure (1990); Hambantota port to China; economic crisis (2022) — India helped with $4bn support | |
| Myanmar | Free Movement Regime (FMR) — suspended 2024; Kaladan Multi-Modal Project; Coup 2021 — refugees, drugs, arms influx affecting Manipur | |
| Bhutan | Treaty of Friendship 2007; India provides defence; economic dependence; Doklam standoff (2017); Bhutan-China border talks (2021) ongoing | |
| Maldives | India First policy under Solih; reversed under Muizzu (2023) — "India Out" campaign; Chinese influence; India withdrew military from Maldives (2024) | |
| Afghanistan | Taliban takeover (Aug 2021) — India evacuated; Chabahar Port route to Afghanistan; $3 billion development aid invested; cautious re-engagement with Taliban |
3. Key Bilateral Relations
India–USA
| Milestone | Year | Significance |
|---|---|---|
| India-US Civil Nuclear Deal (123 Agreement) | 2008 | NSG waiver; civilian nuclear cooperation; transformed relations; ended India's isolation IMP |
| QUAD Formation | 2004/2017/2021 | India, USA, Japan, Australia; free and open Indo-Pacific; counterweight to China |
| GSOMIA / BECA / LEMOA / COMCASA | 2016–2020 | Foundational defence agreements; logistics, signals intelligence, geospatial data sharing |
| Strategic Partnership | 2016 | Major Defence Partner status; defence technology transfer; GE F414 engine deal (2023) |
| iCET | 2023 | Initiative on Critical and Emerging Technologies; semiconductors, AI, quantum, space, defence |
| Trade | 2022–23 | US India's largest trading partner; $128 billion bilateral trade; GSP suspension issue |
| H-1B Visa | Ongoing | Indian IT professionals largest users; periodic tensions over restrictions |
India–Russia
| Aspect | Details |
|---|---|
| Historical Bond | Treaty of Peace, Friendship and Cooperation 1971; supported India during the 1971 war; privileged strategic partnership |
| Defence | ~60% of India's defence imports historically from Russia; S-400 Triumf missile system (CAATSA tensions with US); BrahMos missile (joint venture) |
| Nuclear | Kudankulam Nuclear Power Plant (Tamil Nadu) — Russian technology; 6 units planned |
| Ukraine War Impact | India abstained in UNSC/UNGA; bought discounted Russian oil (Urals crude); CAATSA waiver not officially granted; India's strategic autonomy on display IMP |
| Trade | Russia India's largest oil supplier (2023); bilateral target $30 billion; Rupee-Rouble mechanism explored |
India–Japan
| Aspect | Details |
|---|---|
| Framework | Special Strategic and Global Partnership (2014); annual PM summits; "Japan Plus" fast-track investment mechanism |
| Infrastructure | Mumbai-Ahmedabad High Speed Rail (Shinkansen); JICA funding; Delhi Metro (JICA loans); North-East connectivity |
| QUAD | Both members; Indo-Pacific cooperation |
| Trade | India-Japan CEPA (2011); Japanese FDI in India manufacturing (Suzuki, Honda, Toyota, Sony) |
India–Israel
| Aspect | Details |
|---|---|
| Relations | Diplomatic relations established 1992; initially cautious (India supported Palestine); dramatically upgraded |
| Defence | 2nd largest defence supplier to India; UAVs, missile systems (Barak-8 jointly developed), artillery; $1 billion+ annual defence trade |
| Agriculture | Drip irrigation (Netafim), precision agriculture, MASHAV cooperation; Centre of Excellence in Agriculture in India |
| Gaza Conflict 2023 | India expressed solidarity with Israel post-Hamas attack; also called for humanitarian aid to civilians; complex balancing with Arab world relations |
4. Multilateral Organisations — India's Engagement
| Organisation | Founded | HQ | Members | India's role / key facts |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| United Nations | 1945 | New York | 193 | UNSC permanent membership bid (P5: USA, UK, France, Russia, China); India largest contributor to UN peacekeeping; G4 (India, Germany, Japan, Brazil) push for UNSC reform; India on UNSC non-permanent 2021–22 IMP |
| SAARC | 1985 | Kathmandu | 8 | India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal, Bhutan, Sri Lanka, Maldives, Afghanistan; virtually defunct due to India-Pakistan tensions; last summit 2014; 18th summit indefinitely postponed |
| BIMSTEC | 1997 | Dhaka | 7 | Bay of Bengal grouping: India, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Nepal, Bhutan; India's preferred alternative to SAARC; 5th Summit (2022, Colombo); 14 sectors of cooperation IMP |
| SCO | 2001 | Beijing | 9 | India full member since 2017 (with Pakistan simultaneously); China-Russia dominated; India hosted SCO Summit 2023 (virtually); security cooperation, anti-terrorism |
| BRICS | 2009 | No fixed HQ | 5→10 (2024) | Brazil, Russia, India, China, South Africa + Egypt, Ethiopia, Iran, UAE, Saudi Arabia joined 2024; India's largest multilateral forum by economic share; NDB (New Development Bank) headquartered Shanghai |
| G20 | 1999 | Rotating | 19+EU+AU | India hosted 2023 (New Delhi Declaration; African Union added); represents 85% of GDP, 75% trade, 67% population; PM chaired IMP |
| G7 | 1975 | Rotating | 7 | USA, UK, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, Canada; India invited as outreach partner; not a member |
| QUAD | 2007/2021 | No HQ | 4 | India, USA, Japan, Australia; Free and Open Indo-Pacific; Vaccine initiative; iCET; Malabar naval exercise (India-US-Japan, now all 4) |
| ASEAN | 1967 | Jakarta | 10 | India dialogue partner since 1992; Summit partner since 2002; ASEAN-India FTA (AIFTA); Act East Policy; EAS; ARF |
| Commonwealth | 1931 | London | 56 | India a member; largely symbolic; CHOGM meetings |
| NAM | 1961 | No HQ | 120 | Non-Aligned Movement; India founding member (Nehru + Nkrumah + Nasser + Sukarno + Tito — Panchsheel + Belgrade); relevance debated in the post-Cold War era |
| IOR-ARC (IORA) | 1997 | Mauritius | 23 | Indian Ocean Rim Association; trade, security, blue economy; India a founding member |
PYQ themes: "India's membership in SCO is at odds with India-China tensions" — analyse PYQ · Significance of India's G20 Presidency 2023 PYQ · India's bid for permanent UNSC membership — merits and challenges PYQ · BIMSTEC as an alternative to SAARC — evaluate PYQ
5. Indo-Pacific and Maritime Strategy
| Concept | Details |
|---|---|
| Indo-Pacific | Geopolitical concept linking the Indian Ocean + Pacific; US/Japan/India/Australia use it; China prefers "Asia-Pacific" (avoids Indian Ocean centrality) |
| India's SAGAR Doctrine | Security and Growth for All in the Region (2015); Indian Ocean as India's zone of influence; blue economy, anti-piracy, HADR |
| String of Pearls | Chinese strategic ports/infrastructure in the IOR — Gwadar (Pakistan), Hambantota (Sri Lanka), Kyaukpyu (Myanmar), Chittagong (Bangladesh); encirclement concern for India IMP |
| Necklace of Diamonds | India's counter — Chabahar (Iran), Sabang (Indonesia), Sittwe (Myanmar), Assumption Island (Seychelles), Duqm (Oman) |
| Key Naval Exercises | Malabar (India-US-Japan-Australia); MILAN (India-multilateral IOR); RIMPAC (US-led Pacific exercise, India participates) |
| IFC-IOR | Information Fusion Centre — Indian Ocean Region (Gurugram, 2018); white shipping agreement; maritime domain awareness |
6. United Nations System
| UN body | HQ | India's relevance |
|---|---|---|
| UNSC (Security Council) | New York | P5 veto power; India seeks a permanent seat; on non-permanent twice; UNSC reform blocked by P5 |
| UNGA | New York | One country, one vote; India active; resolutions on disarmament, development, climate |
| ICJ (International Court of Justice) | The Hague | Kulbhushan Jadhav case (Pakistan arrested, India won consular access case); 15 judges elected by UNGA+UNSC |
| UNHRC | Geneva | India elected member; critical of some India resolutions (CAA, J&K); India defends democratic credentials |
| UNDP | New York | Human Development Report; India HDI rank 134 (2023) |
| WHO | Geneva | India key vaccine manufacturer (Serum Institute, Bharat Biotech); COVID-19 COVAX |
| WTO | Geneva | India key negotiator; food security stockpiling waiver; dispute settlement; IP rights for pharma |
| IMF | Washington DC | India voting share ~2.75%; calls for reform of Bretton Woods institutions |
| World Bank Group | Washington DC | Largest multilateral lender to India; IBRD, IDA loans |
7. India's Nuclear Policy and Disarmament
| Aspect | Details |
|---|---|
| Nuclear Tests | Pokhran-I (1974 — "Smiling Buddha"; Indira Gandhi); Pokhran-II (1998 — "Operation Shakti"; Vajpayee; 5 tests) |
| No First Use (NFU) | India will not use nuclear weapons first; retaliatory second strike; "massive retaliation" if NFU violated; review hinted at but no formal change IMP |
| Credible Minimum Deterrence | Maintain minimum nuclear arsenal to deter adversaries; not an arms race |
| Nuclear Command Authority (NCA) | Political Council (PM chairs) + Executive Council (NSA chairs); civilian control |
| Triad | Land (Agni series), Air (Mirage-2000 capable), Sea (INS Arihant — SSBN, K-4/K-15 SLBMs) |
| NPT | Non-Proliferation Treaty (1968); India NOT a signatory; US-India deal gave India NSG waiver without signing NPT |
| CTBT | Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty; India NOT a signatory (would cap the nuclear programme) |
| FMCT | Fissile Material Cut-off Treaty; India supports in principle; negotiations stalled at the Conference on Disarmament |
| NSG (Nuclear Suppliers Group) | India seeking membership (48 members); China blocking; India got a special waiver in 2008 |
8. India and the Gulf / West Asia
| Country / grouping | Key ties |
|---|---|
| UAE | 8 million Indian diaspora (largest Indian community abroad); CEPA (2022 — first with any Gulf country); India's 3rd largest trading partner; I2U2 group (India, Israel, UAE, USA) |
| Saudi Arabia | 1.5 million Indians; oil supplier; Strategic Partnership Council; Vision 2030 cooperation; $6.4 billion investment pledged |
| Iran | Chabahar Port (crucial for Afghanistan access, bypassing Pakistan); India-Iran-Afghanistan transport corridor; oil imports reduced under US sanctions; Farzad-B gas field |
| Israel | Defence partner; drip irrigation; tech cooperation; India balances between Israel and Palestine (supports two-state solution) |
| Palestine | India historically supported; first non-Arab country to recognise the PLO (1974); supports two-state solution; but relations with Israel pragmatic |
| I2U2 | India, Israel, UAE, USA — 2022; food security, clean energy, infrastructure; "West Asian Quad" |
| IMEC | India-Middle East-Europe Economic Corridor (G20 2023); India-UAE-Saudi-Jordan-Israel-Europe; rival to BRI; disrupted by the Gaza conflict IMP |
9. India-Africa Relations
| Aspect | Details |
|---|---|
| India-Africa Forum Summit (IAFS) | 3 summits (2008, 2011, 2015); 4th Summit pending; Lines of Credit (LoC) extended |
| Development Cooperation | $12.37 billion in LoCs (2015–20); ITEC (Indian Technical and Economic Cooperation) — capacity building; Pan-Africa e-Network (telemedicine, tele-education) |
| Trade | India-Africa trade ~$98 billion (2022–23); India among Africa's top 5 trading partners; generic pharmaceuticals (~20% of Africa's imports) |
| AU in G20 | India championed African Union inclusion in G20 (achieved 2023); diplomatic capital building |
| Key Partners | South Africa (BRICS), Nigeria, Kenya, Ethiopia, Egypt (BRICS+), Mauritius (special ties — tax treaty, diaspora) |
10. Indian Diaspora
| Aspect | Details |
|---|---|
| Size | 3.2 crore (32 million) — world's largest diaspora (UN 2020) |
| Remittances | $111 billion (2022) — world's highest; ~3% of GDP; MoF data |
| Key Destinations | UAE (35 lakh), USA (45 lakh), Saudi Arabia (25 lakh), Kuwait, Oman, UK, Canada, Australia |
| PIO / OCI | Person of Indian Origin card merged into OCI (Overseas Citizen of India) 2015; multiple entry lifelong visa; no voting rights; cannot hold constitutional posts |
| Pravasi Bharatiya Divas | 9 January (NRI Day — anniversary of Gandhi's return from South Africa, 1915); biennial convention since 2003 |
| Engagement | Ministry of External Affairs (MEA) manages; PBAY (Pravasi Bharatiya Assistance Yojana); Emigration Act review |
11. India-EU Relations
| Aspect | Details |
|---|---|
| Strategic Partnership | 2004; annual summits; 2021 Connectivity Partnership |
| Trade | EU India's largest trading bloc partner ($120+ billion); FTA negotiations resumed 2022 after a decade-long gap |
| India-France | Rafale jets (36 aircraft, 2016); strategic partnership; Indo-Pacific cooperation; Horizon 2047 partnership |
| India-Germany | Green and Sustainable Development Partnership; hydrogen, EVs, industrial cooperation |
| India-UK | Migration and Mobility Partnership; FTA negotiations (India's largest bilateral FTA goal); financial services, education |
Sources: MEA Annual Report; IDSA; ORF; PIB; UN Peacekeeping database; WTO; UNSC resolutions; Bipin Chandra (India's Foreign Policy); Rajiv Sikri (Challenge and Strategy); Shyam Saran (How India Sees the World); BRICS summit declarations; G20 New Delhi Declaration 2023.