Biodiversity, protected areas, international conventions, climate policy — comprehensive UPSC reference
India is one of 17 mega-biodiverse countries in the world. It covers only 2.4% of the world's land area but hosts 7–8% of all recorded species.
A Biodiversity Hotspot must have ≥1,500 endemic vascular plant species AND have lost ≥70% of its original habitat. Of 36 global hotspots, 4 are in/partly in India:
| Species | IUCN Status | Habitat / States | Conservation Note |
|---|---|---|---|
| Bengal Tiger (National Animal) | Endangered | Sundarbans, Corbett, Ranthambore, across India | Tiger population rose to 3,167 (2022 census) — from 1,411 in 2006 |
| Indian One-horned Rhinoceros | Vulnerable | Kaziranga NP, Orang NP (Assam), Dudhwa (UP) | World's largest one-horned rhino population; 2,600+ in Kaziranga |
| Asian Elephant (National Heritage Animal) | Endangered | South India, NE India, corridors across India | Project Elephant launched 1992; 30,000+ in India |
| Snow Leopard | Vulnerable | Ladakh, HP, Uttarakhand, Sikkim, Arunachal | India has ~400–700 snow leopards; Project Snow Leopard (2009) |
| Red Panda | Endangered | Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh, NE states | State animal of Sikkim; International Red Panda Day (3rd Saturday Sep) |
| Gangetic River Dolphin (National Aquatic Animal) | Endangered | Ganga, Brahmaputra, Chambal rivers | Bioindicator of river health; Project Dolphin (2020) |
| Great Indian Bustard | Critically Endangered | Rajasthan (Desert NP), Gujarat | <150 individuals; power line collisions major threat; Supreme Court case ongoing |
| Indian Vulture | Critically Endangered | Across India (declining) | Diclofenac (veterinary drug) caused 95%+ population crash; drug banned 2006 |
India has a network of 573 Protected Areas covering ~5.03% of its geographical area: 106 National Parks, 567 Wildlife Sanctuaries, 100+ Conservation Reserves & Community Reserves (as of 2023).
| National Park | State | Known For | Size |
|---|---|---|---|
| Jim Corbett NP | Uttarakhand | Oldest NP in India (1936); Bengal tiger; first Project Tiger reserve (1973) | 521 sq km (core) |
| Kaziranga NP | Assam | World's largest one-horned rhino population; UNESCO WHS; 2/3 of world's rhinos | 429 sq km (core) |
| Sundarbans NP | West Bengal | Largest mangrove forest; Royal Bengal Tiger; UNESCO WHS; biosphere reserve | 1,330 sq km |
| Gir Forest NP | Gujarat | Only wild habitat of Asiatic lion; lion population ~700 (2020 census) | 258 sq km (core) |
| Kanha NP | Madhya Pradesh | Barasingha (hard-ground swamp deer); tiger reserve; inspired Kipling's Jungle Book | 945 sq km (core) |
| Ranthambore NP | Rajasthan | Diurnal tiger sightings; historic Ranthambore Fort inside park | 282 sq km (core) |
| Periyar NP | Kerala | Elephant & tiger; Periyar Lake; Western Ghats; eco-tourism model | 305 sq km |
| Namdapha NP | Arunachal Pradesh | Largest NP in NE India; only park with tiger, leopard, snow leopard, clouded leopard | 1,985 sq km |
| Hemis NP | Ladakh | Largest NP in India; highest altitude NP; snow leopard | 4,400 sq km |
| Keibul Lamjao NP | Manipur | World's only floating National Park; home of Sangai (brow-antlered deer) | 40 sq km |
India has 75 Ramsar Sites (as of 2023) — the most in South Asia. Ramsar Convention on Wetlands (1971) promotes conservation of wetland ecosystems.
| Ramsar Site | State | Type | Significance |
|---|---|---|---|
| Chilika Lake | Odisha | Coastal lagoon | First Indian Ramsar site (1981); largest coastal wetland; Irrawaddy dolphin & flamingos |
| Keoladeo (Bharatpur) NP | Rajasthan | Freshwater marsh | 1981; UNESCO WHS; wintering ground for Siberian crane (now functionally extinct in wild) |
| Loktak Lake | Manipur | Freshwater lake | Largest freshwater lake in NE India; floating phumdis; Keibul Lamjao NP |
| Wular Lake | J&K | Freshwater tectonic lake | Largest freshwater lake in India; flood mitigation for Kashmir valley |
| Harike Lake | Punjab | Reservoir (wetland) | Indus river system; waterfowl congregation; headworks of Beas & Sutlej |
| Sambhar Lake | Rajasthan | Saline lake | Largest inland saltlake; flamingos; major salt source |
| Sundarbans | West Bengal | Mangrove | UNESCO WHS; tiger reserve; largest mangrove complex in the world |
| Vembanad Kol | Kerala | Brackish lagoon | Longest lake in India; Kuttanad — farming below sea level; migratory birds |
| Asthamudi Wetland | Kerala | Estuarine/backwater | Gateway to Kerala's backwater network; 8-armed lake |
| Nanda Lake | Goa | Freshwater lake | One of the smallest Ramsar sites; important for birds & freshwater species |
Environmental conventions are frequently tested in UPSC. India is signatory to most major global environmental agreements.
| Convention | Year / Place | Focus | India's Status |
|---|---|---|---|
| Ramsar Convention | 1971, Ramsar (Iran) | Conservation & wise use of wetlands | Signatory; 75 Ramsar sites (2023) — most in South Asia |
| CITES | 1973, Washington DC | Controls international trade in endangered species; Appendices I, II, III | Signatory; Wildlife Protection Act implements CITES in India |
| Bonn Convention (CMS) | 1979, Bonn (Germany) | Conservation of migratory species; binding & non-binding agreements | Party since 1983; several species agreements (South Asian River Dolphins, Dugongs etc.) |
| Vienna Convention / Montreal Protocol | 1985 / 1987 | Protection of ozone layer; phase-out of ozone-depleting substances (ODS) | Signatory to Montreal Protocol; phased out CFCs; Kigali Amendment (HFCs) — India ratified 2021 |
| Basel Convention | 1989, Basel (Switzerland) | Controls transboundary movement of hazardous wastes | Party; E-waste management rules aligned |
| UNFCCC | 1992, Rio de Janeiro | Framework for global climate action; COPs held annually | Annex II (developing country); ratified 1993 |
| Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) | 1992, Rio | Biodiversity conservation, sustainable use, benefit sharing | Party; Biological Diversity Act 2002 implements CBD; Aichi Targets adopted |
| Kyoto Protocol | 1997, Kyoto | Binding emission reduction targets for Annex I (developed) countries | Developing country; no binding targets; CDM projects undertaken |
| Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety | 2000 | Safe transfer of Living Modified Organisms (LMOs/GMOs) | Party; MoEFCC implements; Genetic Engineering Appraisal Committee (GEAC) |
| Nagoya Protocol | 2010, Nagoya (Japan) | Access and Benefit Sharing (ABS) from genetic resources | Party since 2012; ABS provisions in Biological Diversity Act |
| Paris Agreement | 2015, Paris (COP21) | Limit global warming to 1.5°C–2°C above pre-industrial levels; NDCs | Ratified Oct 2016; Updated NDC (2022): 50% electricity from non-fossil by 2030; reduce emissions intensity by 45% |
| Minamata Convention | 2013, Kumamoto (Japan) | Protection from mercury pollution | Signed 2014, ratified 2018 |
| Stockholm Convention | 2001 | Eliminate Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) — "dirty dozen" | Party; chemicals regulation under Environment Protection Act 1986 |
India is the world's 3rd largest emitter of greenhouse gases but has among the lowest per-capita emissions. India has made ambitious climate commitments under the Paris Agreement.
| Act / Year | Purpose |
|---|---|
| Wildlife Protection Act, 1972 | Prohibits hunting; establishes protected areas; schedules for species protection; amended 2022 — implements CITES |
| Water (Prevention & Control of Pollution) Act, 1974 | Established State & Central Pollution Control Boards (SPCB, CPCB) |
| Forest Conservation Act, 1980 | Requires Central govt. approval to divert forest land for non-forest use; amended 2023 — Van Mitra, tribal rights provisions |
| Air (Prevention & Control of Pollution) Act, 1981 | Ambient air quality standards; pollution control by PCBs |
| Environment Protection Act, 1986 | Umbrella legislation; empowers Central Govt. to take all measures for environment protection; enacted after Bhopal disaster |
| Biological Diversity Act, 2002 | Implements CBD; National Biodiversity Authority (NBA); People's Biodiversity Registers |
| Scheduled Tribes & Other Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act, 2006 | Recognises rights of forest-dwellers; individual & community forest rights |
| National Green Tribunal Act, 2010 | Established National Green Tribunal (NGT) — specialised environmental court |
Use these short explanations to review your practice answers. For deeper study, consult the official NCERT textbook library.
Organisms interacting with each other and their physical environment. An ecosystem includes biotic and abiotic components and their interactions.
Green plants. Green plants convert solar energy into chemical energy through photosynthesis.
Breaking down dead organic matter and recycling nutrients. Decomposers return nutrients from organic remains to the environment.
Variation within species, between species and among ecosystems. Biodiversity is considered at genetic, species and ecosystem levels.
Protecting species in their natural habitats. In-situ conservation protects organisms within their ecological setting.
A seed bank. Seed banks conserve biological material outside its natural habitat.
Nutrient enrichment of a water body. Excess nutrients can promote algal growth and contribute to oxygen depletion.
Transfer of food energy between organisms. Food chains show feeding relationships and energy transfer across trophic levels.
Biomagnification through food chains. Some persistent pollutants accumulate and increase in concentration at higher trophic levels.
Stratosphere. Stratospheric ozone absorbs much of the Sun’s harmful ultraviolet radiation.
Carbon dioxide. Carbon dioxide absorbs infrared radiation; human activities have increased its atmospheric concentration.
Breaking a continuous habitat into smaller separated patches. Fragmentation can isolate populations and disrupt ecological movement.
Movement between habitat areas. Corridors help connect habitats and enable animal movement and gene flow.
A non-native species whose introduction or spread threatens biodiversity. Invasiveness involves harmful impacts, not merely being non-native.
Using less material and avoiding unnecessary consumption. Waste prevention reduces the amount generated before recycling or disposal is needed.