Classical dance, music, painting, architecture, UNESCO Intangible Heritage and major festivals — UPSC reference
The Sangeet Natak Akademi recognises 8 classical dance forms in India. All are based on the principles of Natya Shastra (attributed to Sage Bharata, 2nd century BCE–2nd century CE).
| Dance Form | State of Origin | Characteristics | Key Notes |
|---|---|---|---|
| Bharatanatyam | Tamil Nadu | Oldest classical dance; Nritya (expression), Nritta (pure dance), Natya (drama); Adavus as basic units | Originated in temples as Devadasi tradition; revived by Rukmini Devi Arundale; Tandava (masculine) & Lasya (feminine) elements |
| Kathak | Uttar Pradesh (North India) | Intricate footwork (tatkar), spins (chakkar), expressive abhinaya; Hindustani music accompaniment | Two main gharanas: Lucknow (Wajid Ali Shah patronage, lyrical) & Jaipur (vigorous, footwork emphasis); grew in Mughal courts |
| Kathakali | Kerala | Elaborate costumes & makeup (vesham); exaggerated facial expressions (navarasas); male performers traditionally | Takes themes from Mahabharata, Ramayana, Puranas; Chenda and Maddalam drums; all-night performances in temple courtyards |
| Kuchipudi | Andhra Pradesh | Combines dance & drama (dance-drama tradition); balancing act on brass plate; Carnatic music | Originated in Krishna district; Bhama Kalapam is most famous composition; male actors historically played female roles |
| Manipuri | Manipur | Soft, lyrical, circular movements; no sharp jerks; Ras Leela dances (Vaishnavite) | Costumes include cylindrical skirt (potloi); Pung (barrel drum) accompaniment; Guru Bipin Singh revived in 20th century |
| Mohiniyattam | Kerala | Lasya (feminine, graceful); swaying movements like coconut palm; performed by women; white & gold costume | Mohini = enchantress (associated with Vishnu); Swati Tirunal composed songs for it; almost disappeared, revived by Vallathol |
| Odissi | Odisha | Tribhangi posture (3 body bends); fluid movements; sculptural poses from Konark Sun Temple & Jagannath temple | Maharis (temple dancers) tradition; one of oldest surviving dance forms; Kelucharan Mohapatra prominent guru |
| Sattriya | Assam | Vaishnavite themes; combines elements of drama, dance & music; performed in Sattras (Vaishnavite monasteries) | Developed by saint Srimanta Shankardev in 15th century; recognised as classical dance by SNA in 2000 |
Indian classical music has two major traditions — Hindustani (North India) and Carnatic (South India) — both rooted in the Sama Veda and Natya Shastra.
| Feature | Hindustani | Carnatic |
|---|---|---|
| Region | North, Central, West India | South India (TN, Karnataka, Kerala, AP, Telangana) |
| Influenced By | Persian, Mughal court music; Sufi traditions | Less influenced by foreign traditions; more ancient roots |
| Key Form | Khayal (main); Dhrupad (oldest); Thumri, Ghazal, Dadra | Kriti (main composition); Tillana, Varnam, Padam |
| Raga System | Thaat system (10 thaats by Vishnu Narayan Bhatkhande) | 72 Melakarta ragas (parent scales) |
| Tala System | Tala (rhythm cycles); Teental (16 beats) most common | More complex tala varieties; Adi tala (8 beats) common |
| Instruments (Lead) | Sitar, Sarod, Sarangi, Bansuri, Shehnai | Veena, Violin (adapted), Nadaswaram, Mridangam |
| Percussion | Tabla | Mridangam, Ghatam, Kanjira, Morsing |
| Vocal Form | Improvisation (Alap, Jod, Jhala, Gat) is central | Composition-centred; improvisation (Manodharma) within structure |
| Trinity | Tansen (Mughal era); Bhatkhande, Paluskar (modern) | Tyagaraja, Muthuswami Dikshitar, Syama Sastri (18th–19th c.) |
India has a rich tradition of painting spanning prehistoric cave art to Mughal miniatures, Rajput schools, and modern movements.
| School | Period / Region | Characteristics | Famous Works |
|---|---|---|---|
| Ajanta Paintings | 2nd c. BCE – 6th c. CE; Aurangabad, Maharashtra | Buddhist themes; tempera technique; narrative fresco-secco; fluid lines | Jataka tales; Padmapani Bodhisattva (UNESCO WHS cave) |
| Ellora Paintings | 6th–11th c.; Aurangabad | Hindu, Buddhist, Jain; coexistence depicted; post-Ajanta tradition | Cave 16 (Kailasa Temple) paintings |
| Mughal Painting | 16th–19th c.; Delhi, Agra, Lahore | Persian influence; fine detail; nature studies; portraiture; secular themes | Akbarnama, Baburnama illustrations; Jahangir's naturalistic bird studies |
| Rajput / Rajasthani Painting | 16th–19th c.; Rajasthan | Bold colours; flat perspective; themes from Ramayana, Mahabharata, Bhagavata Purana; Ragamala paintings | Mewar, Marwar, Kishangarh, Bundi, Kotah sub-schools |
| Pahari Painting | 17th–19th c.; Himachal Pradesh, J&K | From Himalayan hill states; lyrical; lush landscapes; Krishna-Radha themes | Kangra school (most refined), Guler, Basohli |
| Madhubani (Mithila) | Bihar (Mithila region); ancient; recent recognition | Geometric patterns; natural dyes; walls & cloth; Hindu themes; no space left blank | GI tag (2007); practiced by women traditionally; sold globally |
| Pattachitra | Odisha, West Bengal; ancient tradition | Cloth canvas (patta); natural colours; mythological themes; Jagannath prominently | Pipili appliqué work; GI tag; practiced in Raghurajpur village |
| Warli | Maharashtra (tribal — Warli tribe) | White geometric figures on earth-toned background; circles, triangles, squares; daily life themes | Commercialised in 1970s; Jivya Soma Mashe — pioneer artist |
| Kalamkari | Andhra Pradesh (Srikalahasti, Machilipatnam) | Hand-painted / block-printed textile; natural dyes; temple art origins; Vishnu & Shiva themes | Srikalahasti style (freehand pen); Machilipatnam style (block print); GI tag |
| Bengal School of Art | Late 19th – early 20th c.; Calcutta | Reaction against British academic style; revived Indian traditions; wash technique | Abanindranath Tagore, Nandlal Bose; E.B. Havell's influence |
Indian architecture spans from the Indus Valley Civilisation to Mughal grandeur and modern structures. Temple architecture evolved distinct regional styles.
| Site | State | Year | Type |
|---|---|---|---|
| Ajanta Caves | Maharashtra | 1983 | Cultural |
| Ellora Caves | Maharashtra | 1983 | Cultural |
| Agra Fort | Uttar Pradesh | 1983 | Cultural |
| Taj Mahal | Uttar Pradesh | 1983 | Cultural |
| Sun Temple, Konark | Odisha | 1984 | Cultural |
| Mahabalipuram (Pallava monuments) | Tamil Nadu | 1984 | Cultural |
| Kaziranga NP | Assam | 1985 | Natural |
| Manas Wildlife Sanctuary | Assam | 1985 | Natural |
| Keoladeo NP | Rajasthan | 1985 | Natural |
| Qutb Minar & monuments | Delhi | 1993 | Cultural |
| Humayun's Tomb | Delhi | 1993 | Cultural |
| Fatehpur Sikri | Uttar Pradesh | 1986 | Cultural |
| Sundarbans NP | West Bengal | 1987 | Natural |
| Western Ghats | Multi-state | 2012 | Natural |
| Hoysala Temples (Belur, Halebidu, Somnathapura) | Karnataka | 2023 | Cultural |
| Santiniketan | West Bengal | 2023 | Cultural |
UNESCO's Intangible Cultural Heritage (ICH) list recognises living traditions. India has 15 elements on the Representative List of Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity (as of 2024).
| Element | Year | State / Tradition |
|---|---|---|
| Vedic Chanting | 2008 | Pan-India — ancient Vedic oral tradition |
| Koodiyattam (Sanskrit theatre) | 2008 | Kerala — world's oldest living theatre tradition |
| Ramlila (traditional performance of Ramayana) | 2008 | North India — Varanasi, Ramnagar, Vrindavan |
| Kutiyattam (later consolidated with Koodiyattam) | 2008 | Kerala |
| Ramman (festival, Uttarakhand) | 2009 | Saloor-Dungra village, Uttarakhand |
| Mudiyettu (ritual theatre, Kerala) | 2010 | Kerala — Kali worship, river valleys |
| Kalbelia folk songs & dances | 2010 | Rajasthan — Sapera (snake charmer) community |
| Chhau Dance | 2010 | Jharkhand, WB, Odisha — martial arts-based dance |
| Buddhist chanting of Ladakh | 2012 | Ladakh — sacred Himalayan Buddhist practice |
| Sankirtana (Manipur) | 2013 | Manipur — ritual singing, drumming, dancing (Vaishnavite) |
| Traditional brass & copper craft of utensil making (Thatheras) | 2014 | Jandiala Guru, Punjab |
| Yoga | 2016 | Pan-India — ancient mind-body practice |
| Nawrouz (Navroz) | 2016 | Parsi/Zoroastrian New Year — shared with Iran & others |
| Kumbh Mela | 2017 | Prayagraj, Haridwar, Ujjain, Nashik — world's largest peaceful gathering |
| Kolkata's Durga Puja | 2021 | West Bengal — community celebration with artistic idols |
| Garba of Gujarat | 2023 | Gujarat — Navratri festival dance |