GS Paper 1 · Ancient & Medieval India · UPSC Civil Services
Ancient & Medieval History
From the Indus Valley to the fall of the Marathas — the dynasties, sites, thinkers and administrative systems that gave shape to the subcontinent long before 1947.
Start with the Indus Valley →
Indus Valley Civilisation
Maurya & Gupta Empires
Delhi Sultanate
Mughal Empire
5–8 Qs/Year (Prelims)
Exam strategy: Ancient & Medieval History gives 5–8 questions in Prelims. High-yield: Indus Valley site features, Ashoka's edicts (types and locations), Gupta-period contributions (science, art), Delhi Sultanate administrative innovations, Mughal emperor-achievement matching, and Bhakti saints with their traditions. Very frequently tested: wrong attribution of scholars/texts to the wrong dynasty.
1. Prehistoric India & Indus Valley Civilisation (3300–1300 BCE)
| Site | State (modern) | Discovered | Unique feature / key find |
|---|---|---|---|
| Mohenjo-daro | Sindh (Pakistan) | 1922, R. D. Banerji | Great Bath; Granary; grid-iron city planning; Priest-King sculpture; Dancing Girl (bronze); Pasupati seal; largest city IMP |
| Harappa | Punjab (Pakistan) | 1921, Dayaram Sahni | First discovered site (civilisation named after it); working floors; Cemetery R-37; 6 granaries in 2 rows; bullock cart models |
| Dholavira | Gujarat (Kutch) | 1968, J. P. Joshi | Only IVC site with 3 divisions (Citadel, Middle Town, Lower Town); 16 water-conservation reservoirs; inscription board; UNESCO WH (2021) |
| Lothal | Gujarat (Ahmedabad) | 1954, S. R. Rao | World's first tidal dockyard; fire altars; rice husk; Persian Gulf trade artifacts; bead factory |
| Kalibangan | Rajasthan | 1960, B. B. Lal | Evidence of a ploughed field (earliest world evidence); fire altars; pre-Harappan phase; Saraswati river bank |
| Surkotada | Gujarat | 1964 | Horse bones found (evidence of horse in IVC — debated); fortified citadel; only site with horse remains |
| Banawali | Haryana | 1974 | Barley grains; lapis lazuli; toy plough; oval settlement (unlike grid); Harappan script seal |
| Chanhudaro | Sindh (Pakistan) | 1931, E. Mackay | Inkpot; bead-making factory; no citadel; lipstick and eye cosmetics; curved saw |
| Rakhigarhi | Haryana | 1963 | Largest IVC site in India; ongoing excavations; skeletal DNA study (2019); rival to Mohenjo-daro in size IMP |
| Ropar (Rupnagar) | Punjab (India) | 1953, Y. D. Sharma | First site excavated post-independence; dog buried with human (unique); Sutlej river |
Town Planning
- Grid-iron (chessboard) pattern; streets cut at right angles; citadel (upper) + lower town; burnt bricks (standardised 1:2:4 ratio)
Drainage System
- Underground covered drains; world's most advanced for the era; manholes; connected to houses
Trade & Economy
- Cotton cultivation (first in world); weights & measures (16 multiples); trade with Mesopotamia (Dilmun, Magan)
Religion
- Mother Goddess worship; Pasupati (proto-Shiva); fire worship; no temple found; tree worship (Pipal)
Script
- Indus/Harappan script — boustrophedon; NOT deciphered; ~400 signs; pictographic IMP
Decline Theories
- Aryan invasion (outdated); climate change + drought; tectonic activity; Saraswati drying; flood evidence at Mohenjo-daro
Absent Items
- No iron; no horse (debated); no sword; no temple; no definitively identified palace; no war evidence
Present & Notable
- Bronze casting (lost wax); chess; cotton; boat models; standardised weights; earliest sanitation
2. Vedic Age (1500–600 BCE)
| Aspect | Early Vedic (1500–1000 BCE) | Later Vedic (1000–600 BCE) |
|---|---|---|
| Geography | Sapta Sindhu (7 rivers, Punjab-Haryana); Aryavarta | Ganges-Yamuna Doab; eastward expansion; kingdoms in eastern UP, Bihar |
| Economy | Pastoral + semi-nomadic; cattle = wealth; some agriculture | Settled agriculture dominant; iron tools (Painted Grey Ware); rice cultivation |
| Society | Tribal (Jana); Varna system emerging (4 varnas) — originally by occupation | Varna system rigid (birth-based); Ashrama system; untouchability emerging |
| Polity | Tribal republics; Sabha, Samiti (democratic assemblies); Rajan (elected chief) | Territorial kingdoms; hereditary monarchy; Janapadas forming; assemblies decline |
| Religion | Nature worship (Indra, Varuna, Agni, Soma); no idol worship; yajnas; polytheism | Prajapati rises; Vishnu & Rudra/Shiva gain importance; elaborate sacrifices; reaction: Buddhism, Jainism |
| Literature | Rig Veda (oldest, 1028 hymns; 10 Mandalas); Sama, Yajur, Atharva Vedas (later) | Brahmanas, Aranyakas, Upanishads (Vedanta); Vedangas; Epics (later) |
| Status of Women | Relatively better; Gargi, Maitreyi (women philosophers); Swayamvara | Deteriorated; Purdah system; child marriage; widow immolation |
| Veda | Content | Associated priest |
|---|---|---|
| Rig Veda | 1028 hymns (suktas) to deities; 10 Mandalas; oldest text (1500–1200 BCE); Gayatri Mantra (Mandala 3) IMP | Hotri |
| Sama Veda | Melodies/chants; mostly derived from Rig Veda; musical notation; Udgitha | Udgatri |
| Yajur Veda | Sacrificial formulae (prose + verse); Krishna (black) + Shukla (white) Yajur | Adhvaryu |
| Atharva Veda | Spells, charms, healing; folk religion; non-Aryan elements; NOT linked to soma sacrifice | Brahman |
3. Mahajanapadas, Buddhism & Jainism (600–321 BCE)
| Mahajanapada | Capital | Region (modern) | Type |
|---|---|---|---|
| Magadha (most powerful) | Rajgriha (later Pataliputra) | Bihar | Monarchy; Haryanka → Shishunaga → Nanda dynasties |
| Kosala | Shravasti | UP (eastern) | Monarchy; rival to Magadha; Prasenajit (contemporary of Buddha) |
| Vajji (Vrijji) | Vaishali | Bihar (north) | Republic (Gana-sangha); Lichchhavis; first republic ever IMP |
| Kashi | Varanasi | UP | Monarchy; absorbed by Kosala |
| Avanti | Ujjain (N) / Mahishmati (S) | MP (Malwa) | Monarchy; Pradyota dynasty; later Magadha |
| Kamboja | Rajapura (Rajauri) | J&K/Afghanistan border | Republic; Gandhara adjacent |
| Gandhara | Taxila (Takshashila) | NW India (Pakistan) | Monarchy; Persian influence; famous university at Taxila |
| Anga | Champa | Bihar (east) | Monarchy; absorbed by Magadha under Bimbisara |
| Aspect | Buddhism | Jainism |
|---|---|---|
| Founder | Siddhartha Gautama (563–483 BCE); Shakya clan; Kapilavastu | Vardhamana Mahavira (599–527 BCE); Vaishali; 24th Tirthankara |
| Enlightenment | Bodh Gaya (Bodhi tree); age 35 | Jrimbhikagrama (Bihar); Kaivalya at age 42 |
| First Sermon | Sarnath (Deer Park); "Dhammachakkapavattana" | Vaishali (Pali literature) |
| Core Teaching | 4 Noble Truths; Eightfold Path; Middle Path | Panchashila: Ahimsa, Satya, Asteya, Brahmacharya, Aparigraha; Triratna |
| God / Soul | No God; Anatta (no soul); dependent origination; Karma + rebirth | Jiva (soul) is real; Tirthankaras as ideal; Karma as material substance |
| Sects | Hinayana (Theravada); Mahayana (incl. Vajrayana) | Shvetambara (white-clad); Digambara (sky-clad) |
| Councils | 1st: Rajgriha (483 BCE); 2nd: Vaishali (383 BCE); 3rd: Pataliputra (250 BCE, Ashoka); 4th: Kundalavana (Kanishka) | 1st: Pataliputra (300 BCE, split); 2nd: Valabhi (512 CE, texts compiled) |
| Royal Patrons | Bimbisara, Ajatashatru, Ashoka, Kanishka, Harsha | Chandragupta Maurya (became Jain); Kharavela of Kalinga |
4. Maurya Empire (321–185 BCE)
| Ruler | Reign | Key events & achievements |
|---|---|---|
| Chandragupta Maurya | 321–297 BCE | Founded empire with Chanakya's help; defeated Nanda dynasty; repulsed Seleucus Nicator; treaty — 500 war elephants for territory; became Jain monk (Shravanabelagola); Arthashastra (Kautilya) |
| Bindusara | 297–272 BCE | "Amitraghata" (slayer of foes); expanded south (not Kalinga); Deimachus as Greek ambassador |
| Ashoka the Great | 268–232 BCE | Kalinga War (261 BCE) → conversion to Buddhism; missionaries worldwide; Sanchi & Bharhut stupas; Dhamma policy; Rock/Pillar Edicts; Lion Capital (Sarnath) = national emblem IMP |
| Brihadratha (last) | 185 BCE | Killed by general Pushyamitra Shunga → end of Maurya era |
Major Rock Edicts (14)
- Dhamma principles; tolerance of all religions; Kalinga conquest regret (RE 13)
Minor Rock Edicts
- Personal conversion to Buddhism; name "Devanampiya Piyadassi"
Pillar Edicts (7 major)
- Polished sandstone pillars; Lion Capital (Sarnath); mainly Brahmi, some Kharosthi (NW)
Script Used
- Brahmi (most edicts); Kharosthi (Shahbazgarhi, Mansehra); Aramaic + Greek (Afghanistan)
James Prinsep
- Deciphered Brahmi script in 1837; enabled reading of edicts IMP
PYQ watch: Arthashastra is by Kautilya (Chanakya) — on statecraft, not Buddhism PYQ · Kalinga War = Rock Edict XIII, not XIV PYQ · Kharosthi edicts occur only in the northwest, not all India PYQ
5. Post-Maurya Dynasties & Sangam Age
| Dynasty | Period | Region | Key contributions |
|---|---|---|---|
| Shunga Dynasty | 185–73 BCE | Magadha + Malwa | Pushyamitra Shunga (founder); Brahmin revival; Sanchi Stupa expanded |
| Kanva Dynasty | 73–28 BCE | Magadha | Replaced Shungas; then Satavahanas expanded north |
| Indo-Greek Kings | 180–10 BCE | NW India | Menander (Milinda) converted to Buddhism; bilingual coins; Gandhara art fusion |
| Shaka (Scythians) | 1st c. BCE–4th c. CE | NW & Western India | Rudradaman I (150 CE) — earliest Sanskrit inscription (Junagadh) |
| Kushana Dynasty | 1st–3rd c. CE | NW India, Central Asia | Kanishka I — patronised Buddhism; 4th Buddhist Council; Gandhara & Mathura art; Silk Route control |
| Satavahana Dynasty | 230 BCE–220 CE | Deccan (AP, Maharashtra) | Largest post-Maurya empire; Gautamiputra Satakarni; promoted Prakrit; Amaravati Stupa |
| Cheras | 300 BCE–1100 CE | Kerala + W Tamil Nadu | Traded with Rome; Muziri port; spice trade |
| Cholas (Early) | 300 BCE–300 CE | Kaveri delta | Karikala Chola — built Kaveri embankment; Sangam poetry |
| Pandyas (Early) | 300 BCE–600 CE | South Tamil Nadu (Madurai) | Pearl fishery (Gulf of Mannar); trade with Rome; Silappathikaram |
Tolkappiyam
- Oldest Tamil grammar; by Tolkappiyar; 3 sections
Tirukkural
- Thiruvalluvar; 1330 couplets; ethics, polity, love
Sangam Anthologies
- Eight anthologies (Ettutthokai): Purananuru, Akananuru, Narrinai
Silappathikaram
- Ilango Adigal; Kovalan-Kannagi story; Madurai backdrop
Manimekalai
- Sattanar; Buddhist epic; sequel to Silappathikaram
Three Sangams
- Literary academies in Madurai; only the 3rd (historical) survives — Tolkappiyam
6. Gupta Empire — The Golden Age (320–550 CE)
| Ruler | Reign | Key achievements |
|---|---|---|
| Sri Gupta | 240–280 CE | Founder of dynasty; Buddhist temple near Bodh Gaya for Chinese pilgrims |
| Chandragupta I | 320–335 CE | Gupta Era begins (320 CE); married Lichchhavi princess Kumaradevi; gold coins (Dinara) |
| Samudragupta | 335–375 CE | "Napoleon of India"; Allahabad Pillar inscription (Harishena); Ashvamedha sacrifice IMP |
| Chandragupta II (Vikramaditya) | 375–415 CE | Golden Age peak; defeated Shakas; Fahien's visit (399–414 CE); Navratnas at court (Kalidasa, Aryabhata); Iron Pillar (Delhi) |
| Kumaragupta I | 415–455 CE | Founded Nalanda University; Hunas appear at the end |
| Skandagupta | 455–467 CE | Last great Gupta; repulsed Huna invasions; empire began to break up after his death |
Aryabhata
- Zero concept; decimal system; Earth rotates on axis; π ≈ 3.1416; Aryabhatiya (499 CE)
Varahamihira
- Pancha-Siddhantika; Brihat Samhita; Brihat Jataka
Kalidasa
- Abhijnanasakuntalam; Meghaduta; Raghuvamsha; Vikramorvashiya
Vishakhadatta
- Mudrarakshasa (on Chandragupta's rise); Devichandragupta
Sushruta
- Surgery; Sushruta Samhita; plastic surgery; 300 procedures, 120 instruments
Nalanda University
- Founded by Kumaragupta; Xuanzang visited; destroyed by Bakhtiyar Khilji, 1193
Ajanta Paintings
- Caves 1, 2, 16, 17; naturalistic; Mahajanaka Jataka; Padmapani Bodhisattva
Iron Pillar (Mehrauli)
- 399 CE; Chandragupta II; rust-free for 1600 years; phosphoric iron
7. Delhi Sultanate (1206–1526)
| Dynasty | Period | Key sultans & achievements |
|---|---|---|
| Slave (Mamluk) Dynasty | 1206–1290 | Qutb-ud-din Aibak (founder; Qutub Minar). Iltutmish (iqta system; silver tanka + copper jital). Raziya Sultana (1st woman sultan). Balban ("blood and iron" policy) |
| Khalji Dynasty | 1290–1320 | Alauddin Khalji (market reforms; repulsed 4 Mongol invasions; Malik Kafur's southern campaigns) IMP |
| Tughlaq Dynasty | 1320–1414 | Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq (founder). Muhammad bin Tughlaq (capital transfer to Daulatabad, token currency, "wisest fool"; Ibn Battuta visited). Firuz Shah Tughlaq (canals, gardens, Ashoka pillars brought to Delhi) |
| Sayyid Dynasty | 1414–1451 | Weak rulers; Timur's invasion aftermath; Khizr Khan |
| Lodi Dynasty | 1451–1526 | Bahlul Lodi (founder). Ibrahim Lodi (last; defeated at First Battle of Panipat 1526 by Babur) |
Iqta System
- Land assignment (not ownership) in lieu of salary; Iltutmish formalised it
Diwan-i-Wizarat
- Finance department; Wazir headed it — most powerful ministry
Diwan-i-Arz
- Military department; Ariz-i-Mumalik; army roster
Diwan-i-Insha
- Correspondence/state letters; Dabir-i-Khas
Diwan-i-Risalat
- Foreign correspondence; appeals; Qazi-ul-Quzzat
Diwan-i-Bandagan
- Department of slaves; under Balban
Alauddin's Market Control
- Grain, cattle, cloth markets with controllers and spies; price fixed IMP
Tanka & Jital
- Iltutmish introduced silver tanka; copper jital; standardised currency
8. Bhakti & Sufi Movements
| Saint / mystic | Period | Region | Tradition / teaching |
|---|---|---|---|
| Shankaracharya | 788–820 CE | Kerala | Advaita Vedanta; founded 4 mutts (Puri, Dwarka, Badrinath, Sringeri) |
| Ramanuja | 1017–1137 CE | Tamil Nadu | Vishishtadvaita; Sri Vaishnava tradition; challenged caste |
| Madhvacharya | 1238–1317 CE | Karnataka | Dvaita; Udupi tradition; Haridasa movement |
| Ramananda | 1400–1476 CE | UP (Varanasi) | Bhakti in north India; accepted disciples regardless of caste; Kabir's guru |
| Kabir | 1440–1518 CE | UP (Varanasi) | Nirguna Bhakti; rejected caste, rituals, pilgrimage; Dohas in Hindi IMP |
| Guru Nanak | 1469–1539 CE | Punjab (Lahore) | Founded Sikhism; Ek Onkar; rejected caste; Guru Granth Sahib = eternal Guru |
| Mirabai | 1498–1547 CE | Rajasthan (Merta) | Devotion to Krishna; bhajans; abandoned royal life |
| Surdas | 1483–1563 CE | UP (Braj) | Devotion to Krishna (childhood leelas); Sur Sagar; blind poet |
| Tulsidas | 1532–1623 CE | UP (Varanasi) | Ramcharitmanas (Avadhi); Saguna Bhakti; contemporary of Akbar |
| Chaitanya Mahaprabhu | 1486–1534 CE | Bengal (Nabadwip) | Krishna devotion; Sankirtana; Gaudiya Vaishnavism |
| Tukaram | 1598–1650 CE | Maharashtra (Dehu) | Varkari tradition; Abhanga compositions; devotion to Vithoba |
| Dnyaneshwar | 1275–1296 CE | Maharashtra (Alandi) | Jnaneshwari (Marathi commentary on Bhagavad Gita, age 16) |
| Moinuddin Chishti | 1143–1236 CE | Rajasthan (Ajmer) | Chishti order founder in India; "Gharib Nawaz"; Ajmer Dargah |
| Nizamuddin Auliya | 1238–1325 CE | Delhi | Chishti order; "Mahboob-e-Ilahi"; Amir Khusro was disciple |
| Amir Khusro | 1253–1325 CE | Delhi | Disciple of Nizamuddin; invented khayal, qawwali, tarana; "Father of Urdu literature" |
| Bahauddin Zakariya | 1170–1262 CE | Multan | Suhrawardi order; associated with the ruling class |
PYQ watch: Sufi orders — Chishti (Ajmer, Delhi, most popular), Suhrawardi (Multan) PYQ · Kabir (Nirguna) vs. Mirabai (Saguna) — common confusion PYQ · Amir Khusro is a disciple of a Sufi saint, not a Sufi saint himself PYQ
9. Vijayanagara Empire (1336–1646)
| Aspect | Details |
|---|---|
| Founders | Harihara I & Bukka I (Sangama brothers); 1336 CE; founded at Vijayanagara (Hampi) on the Tungabhadra; inspired by Vidyaranya |
| 4 Dynasties | Sangama (1336–1485) → Saluva (1485–1505) → Tuluva (1505–1570) → Aravidu (1570–1646) |
| Greatest King | Krishnadevaraya (Tuluva; 1509–1529); "Andhra Bhoja"; Amuktamalyada; never defeated in battle IMP |
| Battle of Talikota | 1565 CE; Vijayanagara defeated by the Deccan Sultanate alliance; empire never recovered |
| Administration | Nayankara system (military chiefs = nayakas given land for military service, similar to iqta) |
| Economy | Trade with Arabs, Portuguese; Calicut spice trade; horse import from Arabia; Abdur Razzaq described its prosperity |
| Art & Architecture | Dravidian temple style; Vitthala temple (stone chariot); UNESCO WH (Hampi 1986) |
| Telugu Literature | Krishnadevaraya's Ashtadiggajas (8 court poets); Allasani Peddana ("Andhra Kavita Pitamaha") |
10. Mughal Empire (1526–1707 / 1857)
| Emperor | Reign | Key events & achievements |
|---|---|---|
| Babur | 1526–1530 | Founder; 1st Battle of Panipat (1526) defeated Ibrahim Lodi; Battle of Khanwa (1527) defeated Rana Sanga; Baburnama (Turki) |
| Humayun | 1530–1540, 1555–1556 | Lost to Sher Shah Suri, exiled to Persia; returned 1555; introduced Persian artists — Mughal painting begins |
| Sher Shah Suri | 1540–1545 (Sur Empire) | Grand Trunk Road; Rupiya (silver coin, precursor of Rupee); land revenue reforms (Patta + Qabuliyat); dak chowki postal system IMP |
| Akbar | 1556–1605 | Din-i-Ilahi (1582); abolished jizya (1564); Mansabdari system; Ain-i-Akbari + Akbarnama; Navratnas; Fatehpur Sikri capital IMP |
| Jahangir | 1605–1627 | Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri; Nur Jahan's real power; Zanjir-i-Adl; Thomas Roe's embassy (1615) |
| Shah Jahan | 1627–1658 | Taj Mahal (1632–53); Red Fort; Jama Masjid; "Golden age of Mughal architecture" |
| Aurangzeb | 1658–1707 | Reimposed jizya (1679); expanded empire to its maximum extent; Deccan wars exhausted the treasury; his death effectively ended the Mughal Empire |
Mansabdari System
- Zat (personal rank) + Sawar (cavalry commanded); 10 to 10,000; introduced by Akbar
Jagirdari
- Revenue assignment from land in lieu of cash; transferable, not hereditary in theory
Diwan (Finance)
- Todarmal's Dahsala system (10-year average revenue)
Ain-i-Akbari
- Abul Fazl; 3rd book of Akbarnama; administrative manual
Subahs (Provinces)
- 12 under Akbar → 21 under Aurangzeb; Subedar + Diwan
Todarmal's Revenue Reform
- Zabti system — measurement, soil classification, average yield, cash payment
PYQ watch: Rupee coined by Sher Shah Suri, not Akbar or Babur PYQ · Din-i-Ilahi was a syncretic order, not a separate religion — very few joined PYQ · Akbar abolished jizya in 1564; Aurangzeb reimposed it in 1679 PYQ · Ain-i-Akbari is the 3rd volume of Akbarnama, not a separate work PYQ
11. Maratha Empire (1674–1818)
| Leader | Period | Key events |
|---|---|---|
| Shivaji Maharaj | 1627/1630–1680 | Founder; guerrilla warfare; coronation 1674 (Raigad); Ashtapradhan council; Chauth + Sardeshmukhi taxes IMP |
| Peshwas | 1713–1818 | Balaji Vishwanath (1st Peshwa); Baji Rao I; 3rd Battle of Panipat 1761 → defeat by Ahmad Shah Abdali → Maratha decline |
| Anglo-Maratha Wars | 1775–1818 | 1st (Treaty of Salbai). 2nd (Treaty of Bassein, 1802). 3rd (1817–18) — Marathas finally defeated; Peshwaship abolished; British paramountcy complete |
Sources: NCERT History Class 6–12 (Our Pasts, Themes in Indian History); R.S. Sharma, Ancient India; Satish Chandra, Medieval India; Romila Thapar, Early India; D.N. Jha, Ancient India; Burton Stein, Vijayanagara; Irfan Habib, Agrarian System of Mughal India.